/ Collection of Internet / Collection of Internet.iso / faq / alt / atheism / logic

< prev

next >

MacOS 8.1

Win98

DOS

view JSON data

view as text

+--------+-------------------------+-------------------------+--------+--------+
|00000000| 50 61 74 68 3a 20 62 6c | 6f 6f 6d 2d 62 65 61 63 |Path: bl|oom-beac|
|00000010| 6f 6e 2e 6d 69 74 2e 65 | 64 75 21 67 61 74 65 63 |on.mit.e|du!gatec|
|00000020| 68 21 68 6f 77 6c 61 6e | 64 2e 72 65 73 74 6f 6e |h!howlan|d.reston|
|00000030| 2e 61 6e 73 2e 6e 65 74 | 21 70 69 70 65 78 21 6d |.ans.net|!pipex!m|
|00000040| 61 6e 74 69 73 21 6d 61 | 6e 74 69 73 21 6e 6f 74 |antis!ma|ntis!not|
|00000050| 2d 66 6f 72 2d 6d 61 69 | 6c 0a 46 72 6f 6d 3a 20 |-for-mai|l.From: |
|00000060| 6d 61 74 68 65 77 20 3c | 6d 61 74 68 65 77 40 6d |mathew <|mathew@m|
|00000070| 61 6e 74 69 73 2e 63 6f | 2e 75 6b 3e 0a 4e 65 77 |antis.co|.uk>.New|
|00000080| 73 67 72 6f 75 70 73 3a | 20 61 6c 74 2e 61 74 68 |sgroups:| alt.ath|
|00000090| 65 69 73 6d 2c 61 6c 74 | 2e 61 74 68 65 69 73 6d |eism,alt|.atheism|
|000000a0| 2e 6d 6f 64 65 72 61 74 | 65 64 2c 6e 65 77 73 2e |.moderat|ed,news.|
|000000b0| 61 6e 73 77 65 72 73 2c | 61 6c 74 2e 61 6e 73 77 |answers,|alt.answ|
|000000c0| 65 72 73 0a 53 75 62 6a | 65 63 74 3a 20 41 6c 74 |ers.Subj|ect: Alt|
|000000d0| 2e 41 74 68 65 69 73 6d | 20 46 41 51 3a 20 43 6f |.Atheism| FAQ: Co|
|000000e0| 6e 73 74 72 75 63 74 69 | 6e 67 20 61 20 4c 6f 67 |nstructi|ng a Log|
|000000f0| 69 63 61 6c 20 41 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 0a 53 75 |ical Arg|ument.Su|
|00000100| 70 65 72 73 65 64 65 73 | 3a 20 3c 6c 6f 67 69 63 |persedes|: <logic|
|00000110| 5f 37 36 32 31 37 30 34 | 30 32 40 6e 65 77 73 2e |_7621704|02@news.|
|00000120| 6d 61 6e 74 69 73 2e 63 | 6f 2e 75 6b 3e 0a 46 6f |mantis.c|o.uk>.Fo|
|00000130| 6c 6c 6f 77 75 70 2d 54 | 6f 3a 20 61 6c 74 2e 61 |llowup-T|o: alt.a|
|00000140| 74 68 65 69 73 6d 0a 44 | 61 74 65 3a 20 32 38 20 |theism.D|ate: 28 |
|00000150| 4d 61 72 20 31 39 39 34 | 20 31 34 3a 35 33 3a 32 |Mar 1994| 14:53:2|
|00000160| 33 20 2b 30 31 30 30 0a | 4f 72 67 61 6e 69 7a 61 |3 +0100.|Organiza|
|00000170| 74 69 6f 6e 3a 20 4d 61 | 6e 74 69 73 20 43 6f 6e |tion: Ma|ntis Con|
|00000180| 73 75 6c 74 61 6e 74 73 | 2c 20 43 61 6d 62 72 69 |sultants|, Cambri|
|00000190| 64 67 65 2e 20 55 4b 2e | 0a 4c 69 6e 65 73 3a 20 |dge. UK.|.Lines: |
|000001a0| 36 37 37 0a 41 70 70 72 | 6f 76 65 64 3a 20 6e 65 |677.Appr|oved: ne|
|000001b0| 77 73 2d 61 6e 73 77 65 | 72 73 2d 72 65 71 75 65 |ws-answe|rs-reque|
|000001c0| 73 74 40 6d 69 74 2e 65 | 64 75 0a 45 78 70 69 72 |st@mit.e|du.Expir|
|000001d0| 65 73 3a 20 39 20 4d 61 | 79 20 31 39 39 34 20 31 |es: 9 Ma|y 1994 1|
|000001e0| 33 3a 35 33 3a 31 38 20 | 47 4d 54 0a 4d 65 73 73 |3:53:18 |GMT.Mess|
|000001f0| 61 67 65 2d 49 44 3a 20 | 3c 6c 6f 67 69 63 5f 37 |age-ID: |<logic_7|
|00000200| 36 34 38 36 32 37 39 38 | 40 6e 65 77 73 2e 6d 61 |64862798|@news.ma|
|00000210| 6e 74 69 73 2e 63 6f 2e | 75 6b 3e 0a 52 65 66 65 |ntis.co.|uk>.Refe|
|00000220| 72 65 6e 63 65 73 3a 20 | 3c 6f 76 65 72 76 69 65 |rences: |<overvie|
|00000230| 77 5f 37 36 34 38 36 32 | 37 39 38 40 6e 65 77 73 |w_764862|798@news|
|00000240| 2e 6d 61 6e 74 69 73 2e | 63 6f 2e 75 6b 3e 20 3c |.mantis.|co.uk> <|
|00000250| 69 6e 74 72 6f 5f 37 36 | 33 32 39 33 36 30 33 40 |intro_76|3293603@|
|00000260| 6e 65 77 73 2e 6d 61 6e | 74 69 73 2e 63 6f 2e 75 |news.man|tis.co.u|
|00000270| 6b 3e 20 3c 66 61 71 5f | 37 36 34 30 37 31 32 30 |k> <faq_|76407120|
|00000280| 33 40 6e 65 77 73 2e 6d | 61 6e 74 69 73 2e 63 6f |3@news.m|antis.co|
|00000290| 2e 75 6b 3e 0a 4e 4e 54 | 50 2d 50 6f 73 74 69 6e |.uk>.NNT|P-Postin|
|000002a0| 67 2d 48 6f 73 74 3a 20 | 73 75 6e 66 6f 72 65 73 |g-Host: |sunfores|
|000002b0| 74 2e 6d 61 6e 74 69 73 | 2e 63 6f 2e 75 6b 0a 4d |t.mantis|.co.uk.M|
|000002c0| 69 6d 65 2d 56 65 72 73 | 69 6f 6e 3a 20 31 2e 30 |ime-Vers|ion: 1.0|
|000002d0| 0a 43 6f 6e 74 65 6e 74 | 2d 54 79 70 65 3a 20 74 |.Content|-Type: t|
|000002e0| 65 78 74 2f 70 6c 61 69 | 6e 3b 20 63 68 61 72 73 |ext/plai|n; chars|
|000002f0| 65 74 3d 69 73 6f 2d 38 | 38 35 39 2d 31 0a 43 6f |et=iso-8|859-1.Co|
|00000300| 6e 74 65 6e 74 2d 54 72 | 61 6e 73 66 65 72 2d 45 |ntent-Tr|ansfer-E|
|00000310| 6e 63 6f 64 69 6e 67 3a | 20 38 62 69 74 0a 53 75 |ncoding:| 8bit.Su|
|00000320| 6d 6d 61 72 79 3a 20 49 | 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 73 20 |mmary: I|ncludes |
|00000330| 61 20 6c 69 73 74 20 6f | 66 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 61 |a list o|f logica|
|00000340| 6c 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 | 69 65 73 0a 4b 65 79 77 |l fallac|ies.Keyw|
|00000350| 6f 72 64 73 3a 20 46 41 | 51 2c 20 61 74 68 65 69 |ords: FA|Q, athei|
|00000360| 73 6d 2c 20 61 72 67 75 | 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 66 61 |sm, argu|ment, fa|
|00000370| 6c 6c 61 63 69 65 73 2c | 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 0a 58 |llacies,| logic.X|
|00000380| 72 65 66 3a 20 62 6c 6f | 6f 6d 2d 62 65 61 63 6f |ref: blo|om-beaco|
|00000390| 6e 2e 6d 69 74 2e 65 64 | 75 20 61 6c 74 2e 61 74 |n.mit.ed|u alt.at|
|000003a0| 68 65 69 73 6d 3a 36 35 | 33 33 31 20 61 6c 74 2e |heism:65|331 alt.|
|000003b0| 61 74 68 65 69 73 6d 2e | 6d 6f 64 65 72 61 74 65 |atheism.|moderate|
|000003c0| 64 3a 32 38 39 38 20 6e | 65 77 73 2e 61 6e 73 77 |d:2898 n|ews.answ|
|000003d0| 65 72 73 3a 31 36 39 34 | 34 20 61 6c 74 2e 61 6e |ers:1694|4 alt.an|
|000003e0| 73 77 65 72 73 3a 32 32 | 35 31 0a 0a 41 72 63 68 |swers:22|51..Arch|
|000003f0| 69 76 65 2d 6e 61 6d 65 | 3a 20 61 74 68 65 69 73 |ive-name|: atheis|
|00000400| 6d 2f 6c 6f 67 69 63 0a | 41 6c 74 2d 61 74 68 65 |m/logic.|Alt-athe|
|00000410| 69 73 6d 2d 61 72 63 68 | 69 76 65 2d 6e 61 6d 65 |ism-arch|ive-name|
|00000420| 3a 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 0a | 4c 61 73 74 2d 6d 6f 64 |: logic.|Last-mod|
|00000430| 69 66 69 65 64 3a 20 32 | 39 20 4a 75 6c 79 20 31 |ified: 2|9 July 1|
|00000440| 39 39 33 0a 56 65 72 73 | 69 6f 6e 3a 20 31 2e 36 |993.Vers|ion: 1.6|
|00000450| 0a 0a 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 42 | 45 47 49 4e 20 50 47 50 |..-----B|EGIN PGP|
|00000460| 20 53 49 47 4e 45 44 20 | 4d 45 53 53 41 47 45 2d | SIGNED |MESSAGE-|
|00000470| 2d 2d 2d 2d 0a 0a 20 20 | 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |----..  |        |
|00000480| 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 20 20 20 43 6f 6e |        |     Con|
|00000490| 73 74 72 75 63 74 69 6e | 67 20 61 20 4c 6f 67 69 |structin|g a Logi|
|000004a0| 63 61 6c 20 41 72 67 75 | 6d 65 6e 74 0a 0a 41 6c |cal Argu|ment..Al|
|000004b0| 74 68 6f 75 67 68 20 74 | 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 |though t|here is |
|000004c0| 6d 75 63 68 20 61 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e |much arg|ument on|
|000004d0| 20 55 73 65 6e 65 74 2c | 20 74 68 65 20 67 65 6e | Usenet,| the gen|
|000004e0| 65 72 61 6c 20 71 75 61 | 6c 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 |eral qua|lity of |
|000004f0| 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 | 0a 66 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 |argument|.found i|
|00000500| 73 20 70 6f 6f 72 2e 20 | 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 72 |s poor. | This ar|
|00000510| 74 69 63 6c 65 20 61 74 | 74 65 6d 70 74 73 20 74 |ticle at|tempts t|
|00000520| 6f 20 70 72 6f 76 69 64 | 65 20 61 20 67 65 6e 74 |o provid|e a gent|
|00000530| 6c 65 20 69 6e 74 72 6f | 64 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 |le intro|duction |
|00000540| 74 6f 0a 6c 6f 67 69 63 | 2c 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 |to.logic|, in the|
|00000550| 20 68 6f 70 65 20 6f 66 | 20 69 6d 70 72 6f 76 69 | hope of| improvi|
|00000560| 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 67 | 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 20 6c |ng the g|eneral l|
|00000570| 65 76 65 6c 20 6f 66 20 | 64 65 62 61 74 65 2e 0a |evel of |debate..|
|00000580| 0a 4c 6f 67 69 63 20 69 | 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 63 |.Logic i|s the sc|
|00000590| 69 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 | 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e 69 |ience of| reasoni|
|000005a0| 6e 67 2c 20 70 72 6f 6f | 66 2c 20 74 68 69 6e 6b |ng, proo|f, think|
|000005b0| 69 6e 67 2c 20 6f 72 20 | 69 6e 66 65 72 65 6e 63 |ing, or |inferenc|
|000005c0| 65 20 5b 43 6f 6e 63 69 | 73 65 0a 4f 45 44 5d 2e |e [Conci|se.OED].|
|000005d0| 20 20 4c 6f 67 69 63 20 | 61 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 75 |  Logic |allows u|
|000005e0| 73 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 61 | 6c 79 7a 65 20 61 20 70 |s to ana|lyze a p|
|000005f0| 69 65 63 65 20 6f 66 20 | 72 65 61 73 6f 6e 69 6e |iece of |reasonin|
|00000600| 67 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 | 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 20 |g and de|termine |
|00000610| 77 68 65 74 68 65 72 0a | 69 74 20 69 73 20 63 6f |whether.|it is co|
|00000620| 72 72 65 63 74 20 6f 72 | 20 6e 6f 74 20 28 76 61 |rrect or| not (va|
|00000630| 6c 69 64 20 6f 72 20 69 | 6e 76 61 6c 69 64 29 2e |lid or i|nvalid).|
|00000640| 20 20 4f 66 20 63 6f 75 | 72 73 65 2c 20 6f 6e 65 |  Of cou|rse, one|
|00000650| 20 64 6f 65 73 20 6e 6f | 74 20 6e 65 65 64 20 74 | does no|t need t|
|00000660| 6f 0a 73 74 75 64 79 20 | 6c 6f 67 69 63 20 69 6e |o.study |logic in|
|00000670| 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 74 | 6f 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e | order t|o reason|
|00000680| 20 63 6f 72 72 65 63 74 | 6c 79 3b 20 6e 65 76 65 | correct|ly; neve|
|00000690| 72 74 68 65 6c 65 73 73 | 2c 20 61 20 6c 69 74 74 |rtheless|, a litt|
|000006a0| 6c 65 20 62 61 73 69 63 | 0a 6b 6e 6f 77 6c 65 64 |le basic|.knowled|
|000006b0| 67 65 20 6f 66 20 6c 6f | 67 69 63 20 69 73 20 6f |ge of lo|gic is o|
|000006c0| 66 74 65 6e 20 68 65 6c | 70 66 75 6c 20 77 68 65 |ften hel|pful whe|
|000006d0| 6e 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 72 | 75 63 74 69 6e 67 20 6f |n constr|ucting o|
|000006e0| 72 20 61 6e 61 6c 79 7a | 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 0a 61 |r analyz|ing an.a|
|000006f0| 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 2e | 0a 0a 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 |rgument.|..Note t|
|00000700| 68 61 74 20 6e 6f 20 63 | 6c 61 69 6d 20 69 73 20 |hat no c|laim is |
|00000710| 62 65 69 6e 67 20 6d 61 | 64 65 20 68 65 72 65 20 |being ma|de here |
|00000720| 61 62 6f 75 74 20 77 68 | 65 74 68 65 72 20 6c 6f |about wh|ether lo|
|00000730| 67 69 63 20 69 73 20 75 | 6e 69 76 65 72 73 61 6c |gic is u|niversal|
|00000740| 6c 79 0a 61 70 70 6c 69 | 63 61 62 6c 65 2e 20 20 |ly.appli|cable.  |
|00000750| 54 68 65 20 6d 61 74 74 | 65 72 20 69 73 20 76 65 |The matt|er is ve|
|00000760| 72 79 20 6d 75 63 68 20 | 6f 70 65 6e 20 66 6f 72 |ry much |open for|
|00000770| 20 64 65 62 61 74 65 2e | 20 20 54 68 69 73 20 64 | debate.|  This d|
|00000780| 6f 63 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 | 6d 65 72 65 6c 79 0a 65 |ocument |merely.e|
|00000790| 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 73 20 | 68 6f 77 20 74 6f 20 75 |xplains |how to u|
|000007a0| 73 65 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 | 2c 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 |se logic|, given |
|000007b0| 74 68 61 74 20 79 6f 75 | 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 6c |that you| have al|
|000007c0| 72 65 61 64 79 20 64 65 | 63 69 64 65 64 20 74 68 |ready de|cided th|
|000007d0| 61 74 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 | 20 69 73 0a 74 68 65 20 |at logic| is.the |
|000007e0| 72 69 67 68 74 20 74 6f | 6f 6c 20 66 6f 72 20 74 |right to|ol for t|
|000007f0| 68 65 20 6a 6f 62 2e 0a | 0a 50 72 6f 70 6f 73 69 |he job..|.Proposi|
|00000800| 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 6f | 72 20 73 74 61 74 65 6d |tions (o|r statem|
|00000810| 65 6e 74 73 29 20 61 72 | 65 20 74 68 65 20 62 75 |ents) ar|e the bu|
|00000820| 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 62 | 6c 6f 63 6b 73 20 6f 66 |ilding b|locks of|
|00000830| 20 61 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 | 61 6c 20 61 72 67 75 6d | a logic|al argum|
|00000840| 65 6e 74 2e 20 41 0a 70 | 72 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 69 |ent. A.p|ropositi|
|00000850| 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 20 | 73 74 61 74 65 6d 65 6e |on is a |statemen|
|00000860| 74 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 | 69 73 20 65 69 74 68 65 |t which |is eithe|
|00000870| 72 20 74 72 75 65 20 6f | 72 20 66 61 6c 73 65 3b |r true o|r false;|
|00000880| 20 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 | 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 22 49 | for exa|mple, "I|
|00000890| 74 20 69 73 0a 72 61 69 | 6e 69 6e 67 22 20 6f 72 |t is.rai|ning" or|
|000008a0| 20 22 54 6f 64 61 79 20 | 69 73 20 54 75 65 73 64 | "Today |is Tuesd|
|000008b0| 61 79 22 2e 20 20 50 72 | 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f |ay".  Pr|opositio|
|000008c0| 6e 73 20 6d 61 79 20 62 | 65 20 65 69 74 68 65 72 |ns may b|e either|
|000008d0| 20 61 73 73 65 72 74 65 | 64 20 28 73 61 69 64 20 | asserte|d (said |
|000008e0| 74 6f 0a 62 65 20 74 72 | 75 65 29 20 6f 72 20 64 |to.be tr|ue) or d|
|000008f0| 65 6e 69 65 64 20 28 73 | 61 69 64 20 74 6f 20 62 |enied (s|aid to b|
|00000900| 65 20 66 61 6c 73 65 29 | 2e 20 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 |e false)|.  Note |
|00000910| 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 | 73 20 69 73 20 61 20 74 |that thi|s is a t|
|00000920| 65 63 68 6e 69 63 61 6c | 20 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 |echnical| meaning|
|00000930| 0a 6f 66 20 22 64 65 6e | 79 22 2c 20 6e 6f 74 20 |.of "den|y", not |
|00000940| 74 68 65 20 65 76 65 72 | 79 64 61 79 20 6d 65 61 |the ever|yday mea|
|00000950| 6e 69 6e 67 2e 0a 0a 54 | 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f |ning...T|he propo|
|00000960| 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 | 73 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 |sition i|s the me|
|00000970| 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 | 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 61 |aning of| the sta|
|00000980| 74 65 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 | 6e 6f 74 20 74 68 65 20 |tement, |not the |
|00000990| 70 61 72 74 69 63 75 6c | 61 72 0a 61 72 72 61 6e |particul|ar.arran|
|000009a0| 67 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f | 66 20 77 6f 72 64 73 20 |gement o|f words |
|000009b0| 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 | 65 78 70 72 65 73 73 20 |used to |express |
|000009c0| 69 74 2e 20 20 53 6f 20 | 22 47 6f 64 20 65 78 69 |it.  So |"God exi|
|000009d0| 73 74 73 22 20 61 6e 64 | 20 22 54 68 65 72 65 20 |sts" and| "There |
|000009e0| 65 78 69 73 74 73 20 61 | 0a 47 6f 64 22 20 62 6f |exists a|.God" bo|
|000009f0| 74 68 20 65 78 70 72 65 | 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 |th expre|ss the s|
|00000a00| 61 6d 65 20 70 72 6f 70 | 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 2e |ame prop|osition.|
|00000a10| 0a 0a 41 6e 20 61 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 73 |..An arg|ument is|
|00000a20| 2c 20 74 6f 20 71 75 6f | 74 65 20 74 68 65 20 4d |, to quo|te the M|
|00000a30| 6f 6e 74 79 20 50 79 74 | 68 6f 6e 20 73 6b 65 74 |onty Pyt|hon sket|
|00000a40| 63 68 2c 20 22 61 20 63 | 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 65 64 |ch, "a c|onnected|
|00000a50| 20 73 65 72 69 65 73 20 | 6f 66 0a 73 74 61 74 65 | series |of.state|
|00000a60| 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 74 6f | 20 65 73 74 61 62 6c 69 |ments to| establi|
|00000a70| 73 68 20 61 20 64 65 66 | 69 6e 69 74 65 20 70 72 |sh a def|inite pr|
|00000a80| 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f | 6e 22 2e 20 20 41 6e 20 |opositio|n".  An |
|00000a90| 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 | 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 |argument| consist|
|00000aa0| 73 20 6f 66 0a 74 68 72 | 65 65 20 73 74 61 67 65 |s of.thr|ee stage|
|00000ab0| 73 2e 0a 0a 46 69 72 73 | 74 20 6f 66 20 61 6c 6c |s...Firs|t of all|
|00000ac0| 2c 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 | 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f |, the pr|opositio|
|00000ad0| 6e 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 | 20 61 72 65 20 6e 65 63 |ns which| are nec|
|00000ae0| 65 73 73 61 72 79 20 66 | 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 |essary f|or the a|
|00000af0| 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 | 74 6f 0a 63 6f 6e 74 69 |rgument |to.conti|
|00000b00| 6e 75 65 20 61 72 65 20 | 73 74 61 74 65 64 2e 20 |nue are |stated. |
|00000b10| 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 | 72 65 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 | These a|re calle|
|00000b20| 64 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 | 65 6d 69 73 65 73 20 6f |d the pr|emises o|
|00000b30| 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 | 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 |f the ar|gument. |
|00000b40| 20 54 68 65 79 0a 61 72 | 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 76 | They.ar|e the ev|
|00000b50| 69 64 65 6e 63 65 20 6f | 72 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e |idence o|r reason|
|00000b60| 73 20 66 6f 72 20 61 63 | 63 65 70 74 69 6e 67 20 |s for ac|cepting |
|00000b70| 74 68 65 20 61 72 67 75 | 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 |the argu|ment and|
|00000b80| 20 69 74 73 20 63 6f 6e | 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 73 | its con|clusions|
|00000b90| 2e 20 0a 0a 50 72 65 6d | 69 73 65 73 20 28 6f 72 |. ..Prem|ises (or|
|00000ba0| 20 61 73 73 65 72 74 69 | 6f 6e 73 29 20 61 72 65 | asserti|ons) are|
|00000bb0| 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 69 | 6e 64 69 63 61 74 65 64 | often i|ndicated|
|00000bc0| 20 62 79 20 70 68 72 61 | 73 65 73 20 73 75 63 68 | by phra|ses such|
|00000bd0| 20 61 73 20 22 62 65 63 | 61 75 73 65 22 2c 0a 22 | as "bec|ause",."|
|00000be0| 73 69 6e 63 65 22 2c 20 | 22 6f 62 76 69 6f 75 73 |since", |"obvious|
|00000bf0| 6c 79 22 20 61 6e 64 20 | 73 6f 20 6f 6e 2e 20 20 |ly" and |so on.  |
|00000c00| 28 54 68 65 20 70 68 72 | 61 73 65 20 22 6f 62 76 |(The phr|ase "obv|
|00000c10| 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 22 20 | 69 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e |iously" |is often|
|00000c20| 20 76 69 65 77 65 64 20 | 77 69 74 68 0a 73 75 73 | viewed |with.sus|
|00000c30| 70 69 63 69 6f 6e 2c 20 | 61 73 20 69 74 20 63 61 |picion, |as it ca|
|00000c40| 6e 20 62 65 20 75 73 65 | 64 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 74 |n be use|d to int|
|00000c50| 69 6d 69 64 61 74 65 20 | 6f 74 68 65 72 73 20 69 |imidate |others i|
|00000c60| 6e 74 6f 20 61 63 63 65 | 70 74 69 6e 67 20 73 75 |nto acce|pting su|
|00000c70| 73 70 69 63 69 6f 75 73 | 0a 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 |spicious|.premise|
|00000c80| 73 2e 20 20 49 66 20 73 | 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 6e 67 |s.  If s|omething|
|00000c90| 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 | 20 73 65 65 6d 20 6f 62 | doesn't| seem ob|
|00000ca0| 76 69 6f 75 73 20 74 6f | 20 79 6f 75 2c 20 64 6f |vious to| you, do|
|00000cb0| 6e 27 74 20 62 65 20 61 | 66 72 61 69 64 20 74 6f |n't be a|fraid to|
|00000cc0| 0a 71 75 65 73 74 69 6f | 6e 20 69 74 2e 20 20 59 |.questio|n it.  Y|
|00000cd0| 6f 75 20 63 61 6e 20 61 | 6c 77 61 79 73 20 73 61 |ou can a|lways sa|
|00000ce0| 79 20 22 4f 68 2c 20 79 | 65 73 2c 20 79 6f 75 27 |y "Oh, y|es, you'|
|00000cf0| 72 65 20 72 69 67 68 74 | 2c 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 |re right|, it is |
|00000d00| 6f 62 76 69 6f 75 73 22 | 20 77 68 65 6e 0a 79 6f |obvious"| when.yo|
|00000d10| 75 27 76 65 20 68 65 61 | 72 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 |u've hea|rd the e|
|00000d20| 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 74 69 | 6f 6e 2e 29 0a 0a 4e 65 |xplanati|on.)..Ne|
|00000d30| 78 74 2c 20 74 68 65 20 | 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 |xt, the |premises|
|00000d40| 20 61 72 65 20 75 73 65 | 64 20 74 6f 20 64 65 72 | are use|d to der|
|00000d50| 69 76 65 20 66 75 72 74 | 68 65 72 20 70 72 6f 70 |ive furt|her prop|
|00000d60| 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 | 20 62 79 20 61 20 70 72 |ositions| by a pr|
|00000d70| 6f 63 65 73 73 20 6b 6e | 6f 77 6e 0a 61 73 20 69 |ocess kn|own.as i|
|00000d80| 6e 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 | 2e 20 20 49 6e 20 69 6e |nference|.  In in|
|00000d90| 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 2c | 20 6f 6e 65 20 70 72 6f |ference,| one pro|
|00000da0| 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e | 20 69 73 20 61 72 72 69 |position| is arri|
|00000db0| 76 65 64 20 61 74 20 6f | 6e 20 74 68 65 20 62 61 |ved at o|n the ba|
|00000dc0| 73 69 73 20 6f 66 0a 6f | 6e 65 20 6f 72 20 6d 6f |sis of.o|ne or mo|
|00000dd0| 72 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 | 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 69 |re other| proposi|
|00000de0| 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6c | 72 65 61 64 79 20 61 63 |tions al|ready ac|
|00000df0| 63 65 70 74 65 64 2e 20 | 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 61 |cepted. | There a|
|00000e00| 72 65 20 76 61 72 69 6f | 75 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 |re vario|us forms|
|00000e10| 20 6f 66 0a 76 61 6c 69 | 64 20 69 6e 66 65 72 65 | of.vali|d infere|
|00000e20| 6e 63 65 2e 0a 0a 54 68 | 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 |nce...Th|e propos|
|00000e30| 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 | 72 72 69 76 65 64 20 61 |itions a|rrived a|
|00000e40| 74 20 62 79 20 69 6e 66 | 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 6d |t by inf|erence m|
|00000e50| 61 79 20 74 68 65 6e 20 | 62 65 20 75 73 65 64 20 |ay then |be used |
|00000e60| 69 6e 20 66 75 72 74 68 | 65 72 0a 69 6e 66 65 72 |in furth|er.infer|
|00000e70| 65 6e 63 65 2e 20 20 49 | 6e 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 |ence.  I|nference|
|00000e80| 20 69 73 20 6f 66 74 65 | 6e 20 64 65 6e 6f 74 65 | is ofte|n denote|
|00000e90| 64 20 62 79 20 70 68 72 | 61 73 65 73 20 73 75 63 |d by phr|ases suc|
|00000ea0| 68 20 61 73 20 22 69 6d | 70 6c 69 65 73 20 74 68 |h as "im|plies th|
|00000eb0| 61 74 22 20 6f 72 0a 22 | 74 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 |at" or."|therefor|
|00000ec0| 65 22 2e 0a 0a 46 69 6e | 61 6c 6c 79 2c 20 77 65 |e"...Fin|ally, we|
|00000ed0| 20 61 72 72 69 76 65 20 | 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 | arrive |at the c|
|00000ee0| 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f | 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 |onclusio|n of the|
|00000ef0| 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e | 74 20 2d 2d 20 74 68 65 | argumen|t -- the|
|00000f00| 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 69 | 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 68 69 | proposi|tion whi|
|00000f10| 63 68 0a 69 73 20 61 66 | 66 69 72 6d 65 64 20 6f |ch.is af|firmed o|
|00000f20| 6e 20 74 68 65 20 62 61 | 73 69 73 20 6f 66 20 74 |n the ba|sis of t|
|00000f30| 68 65 20 70 72 65 6d 69 | 73 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 |he premi|ses and |
|00000f40| 69 6e 66 65 72 65 6e 63 | 65 2e 20 20 43 6f 6e 63 |inferenc|e.  Conc|
|00000f50| 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 73 20 | 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 |lusions |are ofte|
|00000f60| 6e 0a 69 6e 64 69 63 61 | 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 70 |n.indica|ted by p|
|00000f70| 68 72 61 73 65 73 20 73 | 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 22 |hrases s|uch as "|
|00000f80| 74 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 | 65 22 2c 20 22 69 74 20 |therefor|e", "it |
|00000f90| 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 | 74 68 61 74 22 2c 20 22 |follows |that", "|
|00000fa0| 77 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c | 75 64 65 22 0a 61 6e 64 |we concl|ude".and|
|00000fb0| 20 73 6f 20 6f 6e 2e 20 | 20 54 68 65 20 63 6f 6e | so on. | The con|
|00000fc0| 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 | 69 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e |clusion |is often|
|00000fd0| 20 73 74 61 74 65 64 20 | 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 66 | stated |as the f|
|00000fe0| 69 6e 61 6c 20 73 74 61 | 67 65 20 6f 66 20 69 6e |inal sta|ge of in|
|00000ff0| 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 2e | 0a 0a 46 6f 72 20 65 78 |ference.|..For ex|
|00001000| 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a | 45 76 65 72 79 20 65 76 |ample:..|Every ev|
|00001010| 65 6e 74 20 68 61 73 20 | 61 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 |ent has |a cause |
|00001020| 28 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 | 29 0a 54 68 65 20 75 6e |(premise|).The un|
|00001030| 69 76 65 72 73 65 20 68 | 61 73 20 61 20 62 65 67 |iverse h|as a beg|
|00001040| 69 6e 6e 69 6e 67 20 28 | 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 29 |inning (|premise)|
|00001050| 0a 41 6c 6c 20 62 65 67 | 69 6e 6e 69 6e 67 73 20 |.All beg|innings |
|00001060| 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 65 20 | 61 6e 20 65 76 65 6e 74 |involve |an event|
|00001070| 20 28 70 72 65 6d 69 73 | 65 29 0a 54 68 69 73 20 | (premis|e).This |
|00001080| 69 6d 70 6c 69 65 73 20 | 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 |implies |that the|
|00001090| 20 62 65 67 69 6e 6e 69 | 6e 67 20 6f 66 20 74 68 | beginni|ng of th|
|000010a0| 65 20 75 6e 69 76 65 72 | 73 65 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c |e univer|se invol|
|000010b0| 76 65 64 20 61 6e 20 65 | 76 65 6e 74 20 28 69 6e |ved an e|vent (in|
|000010c0| 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 29 | 0a 54 68 65 72 65 66 6f |ference)|.Therefo|
|000010d0| 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 75 | 6e 69 76 65 72 73 65 20 |re the u|niverse |
|000010e0| 68 61 73 20 61 20 63 61 | 75 73 65 20 28 69 6e 66 |has a ca|use (inf|
|000010f0| 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 61 | 6e 64 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c |erence a|nd concl|
|00001100| 75 73 69 6f 6e 29 0a 0a | 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 |usion)..|Note tha|
|00001110| 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f | 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e |t the co|nclusion|
|00001120| 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 | 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 | of one |argument|
|00001130| 20 6d 69 67 68 74 20 62 | 65 20 61 20 70 72 65 6d | might b|e a prem|
|00001140| 69 73 65 20 69 6e 20 61 | 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 0a 61 |ise in a|nother.a|
|00001150| 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 2e | 20 20 41 20 70 72 6f 70 |rgument.|  A prop|
|00001160| 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 | 63 61 6e 20 6f 6e 6c 79 |osition |can only|
|00001170| 20 62 65 20 63 61 6c 6c | 65 64 20 61 20 70 72 65 | be call|ed a pre|
|00001180| 6d 69 73 65 20 6f 72 20 | 61 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 |mise or |a conclu|
|00001190| 73 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 | 68 0a 72 65 73 70 65 63 |sion wit|h.respec|
|000011a0| 74 20 74 6f 20 61 20 70 | 61 72 74 69 63 75 6c 61 |t to a p|articula|
|000011b0| 72 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 | 6e 74 3b 20 74 68 65 20 |r argume|nt; the |
|000011c0| 74 65 72 6d 73 20 64 6f | 20 6e 6f 74 20 6d 61 6b |terms do| not mak|
|000011d0| 65 20 73 65 6e 73 65 20 | 69 6e 20 69 73 6f 6c 61 |e sense |in isola|
|000011e0| 74 69 6f 6e 2e 0a 0a 53 | 6f 6d 65 74 69 6d 65 73 |tion...S|ometimes|
|000011f0| 20 61 6e 20 61 72 67 75 | 6d 65 6e 74 20 77 69 6c | an argu|ment wil|
|00001200| 6c 20 6e 6f 74 20 66 6f | 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 |l not fo|llow the|
|00001210| 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 67 | 69 76 65 6e 20 61 62 6f | order g|iven abo|
|00001220| 76 65 3b 20 66 6f 72 20 | 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c |ve; for |example,|
|00001230| 0a 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e | 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 73 |.the con|clusions|
|00001240| 20 6d 69 67 68 74 20 62 | 65 20 73 74 61 74 65 64 | might b|e stated|
|00001250| 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 61 | 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 70 | first a|nd the p|
|00001260| 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 20 | 73 74 61 74 65 64 20 0a |remises |stated .|
|00001270| 61 66 74 65 72 77 61 72 | 64 73 20 69 6e 20 73 75 |afterwar|ds in su|
|00001280| 70 70 6f 72 74 20 6f 66 | 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e |pport of| the con|
|00001290| 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 2e | 20 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 |clusion.|  This i|
|000012a0| 73 20 70 65 72 66 65 63 | 74 6c 79 20 76 61 6c 69 |s perfec|tly vali|
|000012b0| 64 2c 20 69 66 20 0a 73 | 6f 6d 65 74 69 6d 65 73 |d, if .s|ometimes|
|000012c0| 20 61 20 6c 69 74 74 6c | 65 20 63 6f 6e 66 75 73 | a littl|e confus|
|000012d0| 69 6e 67 2e 0a 0a 52 65 | 63 6f 67 6e 69 7a 69 6e |ing...Re|cognizin|
|000012e0| 67 20 61 6e 20 61 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 73 |g an arg|ument is|
|000012f0| 20 6d 75 63 68 20 68 61 | 72 64 65 72 20 74 68 61 | much ha|rder tha|
|00001300| 6e 20 72 65 63 6f 67 6e | 69 7a 69 6e 67 20 70 72 |n recogn|izing pr|
|00001310| 65 6d 69 73 65 73 20 6f | 72 0a 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 |emises o|r.conclu|
|00001320| 73 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 20 | 4d 61 6e 79 20 70 65 6f |sions.  |Many peo|
|00001330| 70 6c 65 20 73 68 6f 77 | 65 72 20 74 68 65 69 72 |ple show|er their|
|00001340| 20 77 72 69 74 69 6e 67 | 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 73 | writing| with as|
|00001350| 73 65 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 | 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 |sertions| without|
|00001360| 20 65 76 65 72 0a 70 72 | 6f 64 75 63 69 6e 67 20 | ever.pr|oducing |
|00001370| 61 6e 79 74 68 69 6e 67 | 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 6f |anything| which o|
|00001380| 6e 65 20 6d 69 67 68 74 | 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e 61 |ne might| reasona|
|00001390| 62 6c 79 20 64 65 73 63 | 72 69 62 65 20 61 73 20 |bly desc|ribe as |
|000013a0| 61 6e 20 61 72 67 75 6d | 65 6e 74 2e 20 20 53 6f |an argum|ent.  So|
|000013b0| 6d 65 0a 73 74 61 74 65 | 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 6c 6f |me.state|ments lo|
|000013c0| 6f 6b 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 | 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 |ok like |argument|
|000013d0| 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 61 | 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 2e 20 |s, but a|re not. |
|000013e0| 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 | 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 | For exa|mple:.."|
|000013f0| 49 66 20 74 68 65 20 42 | 69 62 6c 65 20 69 73 20 |If the B|ible is |
|00001400| 61 63 63 75 72 61 74 65 | 2c 20 4a 65 73 75 73 20 |accurate|, Jesus |
|00001410| 6d 75 73 74 20 65 69 74 | 68 65 72 20 68 61 76 65 |must eit|her have|
|00001420| 20 62 65 65 6e 20 69 6e | 73 61 6e 65 2c 20 61 6e | been in|sane, an|
|00001430| 20 65 76 69 6c 20 6c 69 | 61 72 2c 0a 20 6f 72 20 | evil li|ar,. or |
|00001440| 74 68 65 20 53 6f 6e 20 | 6f 66 20 47 6f 64 2e 22 |the Son |of God."|
|00001450| 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 20 69 | 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 6e |..This i|s not an|
|00001460| 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e | 74 2c 20 69 74 20 69 73 | argumen|t, it is|
|00001470| 20 61 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 | 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 73 | a condi|tional s|
|00001480| 74 61 74 65 6d 65 6e 74 | 2e 20 20 49 74 20 64 6f |tatement|.  It do|
|00001490| 65 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 | 73 73 65 72 74 0a 74 68 |es not a|ssert.th|
|000014a0| 65 20 70 72 65 6d 69 73 | 65 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 |e premis|es which|
|000014b0| 20 61 72 65 20 6e 65 63 | 65 73 73 61 72 79 20 74 | are nec|essary t|
|000014c0| 6f 20 73 75 70 70 6f 72 | 74 20 77 68 61 74 20 61 |o suppor|t what a|
|000014d0| 70 70 65 61 72 73 20 74 | 6f 20 62 65 20 69 74 73 |ppears t|o be its|
|000014e0| 20 0a 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 | 73 69 6f 6e 2e 20 20 28 | .conclu|sion.  (|
|000014f0| 49 74 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 | 73 75 66 66 65 72 73 20 |It also |suffers |
|00001500| 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 6e | 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 |from a n|umber of|
|00001510| 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6c | 6f 67 69 63 61 6c 20 66 | other l|ogical f|
|00001520| 6c 61 77 73 2c 20 62 75 | 74 20 77 65 27 6c 6c 0a |laws, bu|t we'll.|
|00001530| 63 6f 6d 65 20 74 6f 20 | 74 68 6f 73 65 20 6c 61 |come to |those la|
|00001540| 74 65 72 2e 29 0a 0a 41 | 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 65 |ter.)..A|nother e|
|00001550| 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a | 0a 22 47 6f 64 20 63 72 |xample:.|."God cr|
|00001560| 65 61 74 65 64 20 79 6f | 75 3b 20 74 68 65 72 65 |eated yo|u; there|
|00001570| 66 6f 72 65 20 64 6f 20 | 79 6f 75 72 20 64 75 74 |fore do |your dut|
|00001580| 79 20 74 6f 20 47 6f 64 | 2e 22 0a 0a 54 68 65 20 |y to God|."..The |
|00001590| 70 68 72 61 73 65 20 22 | 64 6f 20 79 6f 75 72 20 |phrase "|do your |
|000015a0| 64 75 74 79 20 74 6f 20 | 47 6f 64 22 20 69 73 20 |duty to |God" is |
|000015b0| 6e 6f 74 20 61 20 70 72 | 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f |not a pr|opositio|
|000015c0| 6e 2c 20 73 69 6e 63 65 | 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 6e |n, since| it is n|
|000015d0| 65 69 74 68 65 72 0a 74 | 72 75 65 20 6e 6f 72 20 |either.t|rue nor |
|000015e0| 66 61 6c 73 65 2e 20 20 | 54 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 |false.  |Therefor|
|000015f0| 65 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 | 6e 6f 74 20 61 20 63 6f |e it is |not a co|
|00001600| 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e | 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 |nclusion|, and th|
|00001610| 65 20 73 65 6e 74 65 6e | 63 65 20 69 73 20 6e 6f |e senten|ce is no|
|00001620| 74 20 61 6e 0a 61 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 2e 0a 0a |t an.arg|ument...|
|00001630| 46 69 6e 61 6c 6c 79 2c | 20 63 61 75 73 61 6c 69 |Finally,| causali|
|00001640| 74 79 20 69 73 20 69 6d | 70 6f 72 74 61 6e 74 2e |ty is im|portant.|
|00001650| 20 20 43 6f 6e 73 69 64 | 65 72 20 61 20 73 74 61 |  Consid|er a sta|
|00001660| 74 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f | 66 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f |tement o|f the fo|
|00001670| 72 6d 20 22 41 20 62 65 | 63 61 75 73 65 0a 42 22 |rm "A be|cause.B"|
|00001680| 2e 20 20 49 66 20 77 65 | 27 72 65 20 69 6e 74 65 |.  If we|'re inte|
|00001690| 72 65 73 74 65 64 20 69 | 6e 20 65 73 74 61 62 6c |rested i|n establ|
|000016a0| 69 73 68 69 6e 67 20 41 | 20 61 6e 64 20 42 20 69 |ishing A| and B i|
|000016b0| 73 20 6f 66 66 65 72 65 | 64 20 61 73 20 65 76 69 |s offere|d as evi|
|000016c0| 64 65 6e 63 65 2c 20 74 | 68 65 0a 73 74 61 74 65 |dence, t|he.state|
|000016d0| 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 73 20 | 61 6e 20 61 72 67 75 6d |ment is |an argum|
|000016e0| 65 6e 74 2e 20 20 49 66 | 20 77 65 27 72 65 20 74 |ent.  If| we're t|
|000016f0| 72 79 69 6e 67 20 74 6f | 20 65 73 74 61 62 6c 69 |rying to| establi|
|00001700| 73 68 20 74 68 65 20 74 | 72 75 74 68 20 6f 66 20 |sh the t|ruth of |
|00001710| 42 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 0a | 69 74 20 69 73 20 6e 6f |B, then.|it is no|
|00001720| 74 20 61 6e 20 61 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 69 |t an arg|ument, i|
|00001730| 74 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 | 65 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 74 |t is an |explanat|
|00001740| 69 6f 6e 2e 0a 0a 46 6f | 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c |ion...Fo|r exampl|
|00001750| 65 3a 0a 0a 22 54 68 65 | 72 65 20 6d 75 73 74 20 |e:.."The|re must |
|00001760| 62 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 | 68 69 6e 67 20 77 72 6f |be somet|hing wro|
|00001770| 6e 67 20 77 69 74 68 20 | 74 68 65 20 65 6e 67 69 |ng with |the engi|
|00001780| 6e 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 79 | 20 63 61 72 2c 20 62 65 |ne of my| car, be|
|00001790| 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 | 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 6e 6f |cause it| will no|
|000017a0| 74 0a 20 73 74 61 72 74 | 2e 22 20 2d 2d 20 54 68 |t. start|." -- Th|
|000017b0| 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 6e | 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e |is is an| argumen|
|000017c0| 74 2e 0a 0a 22 4d 79 20 | 63 61 72 20 77 69 6c 6c |t..."My |car will|
|000017d0| 20 6e 6f 74 20 73 74 61 | 72 74 20 62 65 63 61 75 | not sta|rt becau|
|000017e0| 73 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 | 20 69 73 20 73 6f 6d 65 |se there| is some|
|000017f0| 74 68 69 6e 67 20 77 72 | 6f 6e 67 20 77 69 74 68 |thing wr|ong with|
|00001800| 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 67 | 69 6e 65 2e 22 0a 20 2d | the eng|ine.". -|
|00001810| 2d 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 | 73 20 61 6e 20 65 78 70 |- This i|s an exp|
|00001820| 6c 61 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e | 2e 0a 0a 54 68 65 72 65 |lanation|...There|
|00001830| 20 61 72 65 20 74 77 6f | 20 74 72 61 64 69 74 69 | are two| traditi|
|00001840| 6f 6e 61 6c 20 74 79 70 | 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 72 |onal typ|es of ar|
|00001850| 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 | 64 65 64 75 63 74 69 76 |gument, |deductiv|
|00001860| 65 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e | 64 75 63 74 69 76 65 2e |e and in|ductive.|
|00001870| 20 20 41 0a 64 65 64 75 | 63 74 69 76 65 20 61 72 |  A.dedu|ctive ar|
|00001880| 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 | 73 20 6f 6e 65 20 77 68 |gument i|s one wh|
|00001890| 69 63 68 20 70 72 6f 76 | 69 64 65 73 20 63 6f 6e |ich prov|ides con|
|000018a0| 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 20 | 70 72 6f 6f 66 20 6f 66 |clusive |proof of|
|000018b0| 20 69 74 73 20 0a 63 6f | 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e | its .co|nclusion|
|000018c0| 73 20 2d 2d 20 74 68 61 | 74 20 69 73 2c 20 61 6e |s -- tha|t is, an|
|000018d0| 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e | 74 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 | argumen|t where |
|000018e0| 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 | 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 20 |if the p|remises |
|000018f0| 61 72 65 20 74 72 75 65 | 2c 20 74 68 65 0a 63 6f |are true|, the.co|
|00001900| 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e | 20 6d 75 73 74 20 61 6c |nclusion| must al|
|00001910| 73 6f 20 62 65 20 74 72 | 75 65 2e 20 20 41 20 64 |so be tr|ue.  A d|
|00001920| 65 64 75 63 74 69 76 65 | 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e |eductive| argumen|
|00001930| 74 20 69 73 20 65 69 74 | 68 65 72 20 76 61 6c 69 |t is eit|her vali|
|00001940| 64 20 6f 72 0a 69 6e 76 | 61 6c 69 64 2e 20 20 41 |d or.inv|alid.  A|
|00001950| 20 76 61 6c 69 64 20 61 | 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 | valid a|rgument |
|00001960| 69 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e | 65 64 20 61 73 20 6f 6e |is defin|ed as on|
|00001970| 65 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 | 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 |e where |if the p|
|00001980| 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 20 | 61 72 65 0a 74 72 75 65 |remises |are.true|
|00001990| 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 74 | 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c |, then t|he concl|
|000019a0| 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 | 20 74 72 75 65 2e 0a 0a |usion is| true...|
|000019b0| 41 6e 20 69 6e 64 75 63 | 74 69 76 65 20 61 72 67 |An induc|tive arg|
|000019c0| 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 73 | 20 6f 6e 65 20 77 68 65 |ument is| one whe|
|000019d0| 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 70 | 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 20 |re the p|remises |
|000019e0| 70 72 6f 76 69 64 65 20 | 73 6f 6d 65 20 65 76 69 |provide |some evi|
|000019f0| 64 65 6e 63 65 20 66 6f | 72 20 74 68 65 0a 74 72 |dence fo|r the.tr|
|00001a00| 75 74 68 20 6f 66 20 74 | 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c |uth of t|he concl|
|00001a10| 75 73 69 6f 6e 2e 20 20 | 49 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 |usion.  |Inductiv|
|00001a20| 65 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 | 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 |e argume|nts are |
|00001a30| 6e 6f 74 20 76 61 6c 69 | 64 20 6f 72 20 69 6e 76 |not vali|d or inv|
|00001a40| 61 6c 69 64 3b 0a 68 6f | 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 77 |alid;.ho|wever, w|
|00001a50| 65 20 63 61 6e 20 74 61 | 6c 6b 20 61 62 6f 75 74 |e can ta|lk about|
|00001a60| 20 77 68 65 74 68 65 72 | 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 | whether| they ar|
|00001a70| 65 20 62 65 74 74 65 72 | 20 6f 72 20 77 6f 72 73 |e better| or wors|
|00001a80| 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6f | 74 68 65 72 0a 61 72 67 |e than o|ther.arg|
|00001a90| 75 6d 65 6e 74 73 2c 20 | 61 6e 64 20 61 62 6f 75 |uments, |and abou|
|00001aa0| 74 20 68 6f 77 20 70 72 | 6f 62 61 62 6c 65 20 74 |t how pr|obable t|
|00001ab0| 68 65 69 72 20 70 72 65 | 6d 69 73 65 73 20 61 72 |heir pre|mises ar|
|00001ac0| 65 2e 0a 0a 54 68 65 72 | 65 20 61 72 65 20 66 6f |e...Ther|e are fo|
|00001ad0| 72 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 61 | 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 |rms of a|rgument |
|00001ae0| 69 6e 20 6f 72 64 69 6e | 61 72 79 20 6c 61 6e 67 |in ordin|ary lang|
|00001af0| 75 61 67 65 20 77 68 69 | 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 6e |uage whi|ch are n|
|00001b00| 65 69 74 68 65 72 20 64 | 65 64 75 63 74 69 76 65 |either d|eductive|
|00001b10| 0a 6e 6f 72 20 69 6e 64 | 75 63 74 69 76 65 2e 20 |.nor ind|uctive. |
|00001b20| 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 | 2c 20 77 65 20 77 69 6c | However|, we wil|
|00001b30| 6c 20 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e | 74 72 61 74 65 20 66 6f |l concen|trate fo|
|00001b40| 72 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f | 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 |r the mo|ment on |
|00001b50| 64 65 64 75 63 74 69 76 | 65 0a 61 72 67 75 6d 65 |deductiv|e.argume|
|00001b60| 6e 74 73 2c 20 61 73 20 | 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 |nts, as |they are|
|00001b70| 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 76 | 69 65 77 65 64 20 61 73 | often v|iewed as|
|00001b80| 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 | 74 20 72 69 67 6f 72 6f | the mos|t rigoro|
|00001b90| 75 73 20 61 6e 64 20 63 | 6f 6e 76 69 6e 63 69 6e |us and c|onvincin|
|00001ba0| 67 2e 0a 0a 49 74 20 69 | 73 20 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 |g...It i|s import|
|00001bb0| 61 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 6e | 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 |ant to n|ote that|
|00001bc0| 20 74 68 65 20 66 61 63 | 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 | the fac|t that a|
|00001bd0| 20 64 65 64 75 63 74 69 | 76 65 20 61 72 67 75 6d | deducti|ve argum|
|00001be0| 65 6e 74 20 69 73 20 76 | 61 6c 69 64 20 64 6f 65 |ent is v|alid doe|
|00001bf0| 73 0a 6e 6f 74 20 69 6d | 70 6c 79 20 74 68 61 74 |s.not im|ply that|
|00001c00| 20 69 74 73 20 63 6f 6e | 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 | its con|clusion |
|00001c10| 68 6f 6c 64 73 2e 20 20 | 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 |holds.  |This is |
|00001c20| 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 | 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 |because |of the s|
|00001c30| 6c 69 67 68 74 6c 79 20 | 0a 63 6f 75 6e 74 65 72 |lightly |.counter|
|00001c40| 2d 69 6e 74 75 69 74 69 | 76 65 20 6e 61 74 75 72 |-intuiti|ve natur|
|00001c50| 65 20 6f 66 20 69 6d 70 | 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e |e of imp|lication|
|00001c60| 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 | 77 65 20 6d 75 73 74 20 |, which |we must |
|00001c70| 6e 6f 77 20 63 6f 6e 73 | 69 64 65 72 20 6d 6f 72 |now cons|ider mor|
|00001c80| 65 0a 63 61 72 65 66 75 | 6c 6c 79 2e 0a 0a 4f 62 |e.carefu|lly...Ob|
|00001c90| 76 69 6f 75 73 6c 79 20 | 61 20 76 61 6c 69 64 20 |viously |a valid |
|00001ca0| 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 | 20 63 61 6e 20 63 6f 6e |argument| can con|
|00001cb0| 73 69 73 74 20 6f 66 20 | 74 72 75 65 20 70 72 6f |sist of |true pro|
|00001cc0| 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e | 73 2e 20 20 48 6f 77 65 |position|s.  Howe|
|00001cd0| 76 65 72 2c 20 61 6e 0a | 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 |ver, an.|argument|
|00001ce0| 20 6d 61 79 20 62 65 20 | 65 6e 74 69 72 65 6c 79 | may be |entirely|
|00001cf0| 20 76 61 6c 69 64 20 65 | 76 65 6e 20 69 66 20 69 | valid e|ven if i|
|00001d00| 74 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 | 6e 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 |t contai|ns only |
|00001d10| 66 61 6c 73 65 20 70 72 | 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f |false pr|opositio|
|00001d20| 6e 73 2e 20 0a 46 6f 72 | 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 |ns. .For| example|
|00001d30| 3a 0a 0a 20 20 20 41 6c | 6c 20 69 6e 73 65 63 74 |:..   Al|l insect|
|00001d40| 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 77 | 69 6e 67 73 20 28 70 72 |s have w|ings (pr|
|00001d50| 65 6d 69 73 65 29 0a 20 | 20 20 57 6f 6f 64 6c 69 |emise). |  Woodli|
|00001d60| 63 65 20 61 72 65 20 69 | 6e 73 65 63 74 73 20 28 |ce are i|nsects (|
|00001d70| 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 29 | 0a 20 20 20 54 68 65 72 |premise)|.   Ther|
|00001d80| 65 66 6f 72 65 20 77 6f | 6f 64 6c 69 63 65 20 68 |efore wo|odlice h|
|00001d90| 61 76 65 20 77 69 6e 67 | 73 20 28 63 6f 6e 63 6c |ave wing|s (concl|
|00001da0| 75 73 69 6f 6e 29 0a 0a | 48 65 72 65 2c 20 74 68 |usion)..|Here, th|
|00001db0| 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 | 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 |e conclu|sion is |
|00001dc0| 6e 6f 74 20 74 72 75 65 | 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 |not true| because|
|00001dd0| 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 27 73 20 | the arg|ument's |
|00001de0| 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 | 20 61 72 65 20 66 61 6c |premises| are fal|
|00001df0| 73 65 2e 20 0a 49 66 20 | 74 68 65 20 61 72 67 75 |se. .If |the argu|
|00001e00| 6d 65 6e 74 27 73 20 70 | 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 20 |ment's p|remises |
|00001e10| 77 65 72 65 20 74 72 75 | 65 2c 20 68 6f 77 65 76 |were tru|e, howev|
|00001e20| 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 20 | 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 |er, the |conclusi|
|00001e30| 6f 6e 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 | 20 62 65 20 74 72 75 65 |on would| be true|
|00001e40| 2e 20 0a 54 68 65 20 61 | 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 |. .The a|rgument |
|00001e50| 69 73 20 74 68 75 73 20 | 65 6e 74 69 72 65 6c 79 |is thus |entirely|
|00001e60| 20 76 61 6c 69 64 2e 0a | 0a 4d 6f 72 65 20 73 75 | valid..|.More su|
|00001e70| 62 74 6c 79 2c 20 77 65 | 20 63 61 6e 20 72 65 61 |btly, we| can rea|
|00001e80| 63 68 20 61 20 74 72 75 | 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 |ch a tru|e conclu|
|00001e90| 73 69 6f 6e 20 66 72 6f | 6d 20 6f 6e 65 20 6f 72 |sion fro|m one or|
|00001ea0| 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 66 61 | 6c 73 65 20 70 72 65 6d | more fa|lse prem|
|00001eb0| 69 73 65 73 2c 0a 61 73 | 20 69 6e 3a 0a 0a 20 20 |ises,.as| in:..  |
|00001ec0| 20 41 6c 6c 20 66 69 73 | 68 20 6c 69 76 65 20 69 | All fis|h live i|
|00001ed0| 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 65 | 61 20 28 70 72 65 6d 69 |n the se|a (premi|
|00001ee0| 73 65 29 0a 20 20 20 44 | 6f 6c 70 68 69 6e 73 20 |se).   D|olphins |
|00001ef0| 61 72 65 20 66 69 73 68 | 20 28 70 72 65 6d 69 73 |are fish| (premis|
|00001f00| 65 29 0a 20 20 20 54 68 | 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 |e).   Th|erefore |
|00001f10| 64 6f 6c 70 68 69 6e 73 | 20 6c 69 76 65 20 69 6e |dolphins| live in|
|00001f20| 20 74 68 65 20 73 65 61 | 20 28 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 | the sea| (conclu|
|00001f30| 73 69 6f 6e 29 0a 0a 48 | 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 |sion)..H|owever, |
|00001f40| 74 68 65 20 6f 6e 65 20 | 74 68 69 6e 67 20 77 65 |the one |thing we|
|00001f50| 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 | 64 6f 20 69 73 20 72 65 | cannot |do is re|
|00001f60| 61 63 68 20 61 20 66 61 | 6c 73 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 |ach a fa|lse conc|
|00001f70| 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 74 | 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 76 |lusion t|hrough v|
|00001f80| 61 6c 69 64 0a 69 6e 66 | 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 66 |alid.inf|erence f|
|00001f90| 72 6f 6d 20 74 72 75 65 | 20 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 |rom true| premise|
|00001fa0| 73 2e 20 20 57 65 20 63 | 61 6e 20 74 68 65 72 65 |s.  We c|an there|
|00001fb0| 66 6f 72 65 20 64 72 61 | 77 20 75 70 20 61 20 22 |fore dra|w up a "|
|00001fc0| 74 72 75 74 68 20 74 61 | 62 6c 65 22 20 66 6f 72 |truth ta|ble" for|
|00001fd0| 0a 69 6d 70 6c 69 63 61 | 74 69 6f 6e 2e 0a 0a 54 |.implica|tion...T|
|00001fe0| 68 65 20 73 79 6d 62 6f | 6c 20 22 3d 3e 22 20 64 |he symbo|l "=>" d|
|00001ff0| 65 6e 6f 74 65 73 20 69 | 6d 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 |enotes i|mplicati|
|00002000| 6f 6e 3b 20 22 41 22 20 | 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 |on; "A" |is the p|
|00002010| 72 65 6d 69 73 65 2c 20 | 22 42 22 20 74 68 65 20 |remise, |"B" the |
|00002020| 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 | 6f 6e 2e 20 0a 22 54 22 |conclusi|on. ."T"|
|00002030| 20 61 6e 64 20 22 46 22 | 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 | and "F"| represe|
|00002040| 6e 74 20 74 72 75 65 20 | 61 6e 64 20 66 61 6c 73 |nt true |and fals|
|00002050| 65 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 | 74 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 0a |e respec|tively..|
|00002060| 0a 50 72 65 6d 69 73 65 | 20 43 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 |.Premise| Conclus|
|00002070| 69 6f 6e 20 49 6e 66 65 | 72 65 6e 63 65 0a 20 20 |ion Infe|rence.  |
|00002080| 20 41 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 42 20 20 20 20 20 | A      |  B     |
|00002090| 20 20 20 41 3d 3e 42 0a | 20 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d |   A=>B.| -------|
|000020a0| 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d | 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d 2d |--------|--------|
|000020b0| 2d 2d 2d 0a 20 20 20 46 | 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |---.   F|        |
|000020c0| 46 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 54 20 20 20 20 20 |F       |  T     |
|000020d0| 20 49 66 20 74 68 65 20 | 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 | If the |premises|
|000020e0| 20 61 72 65 20 66 61 6c | 73 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 | are fal|se and t|
|000020f0| 68 65 20 69 6e 66 65 72 | 65 6e 63 65 0a 20 20 20 |he infer|ence.   |
|00002100| 46 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 54 20 20 20 20 20 20 |F       | T      |
|00002110| 20 20 20 54 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 76 61 6c 69 64 2c |   T    |  valid,|
|00002120| 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e | 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 | the con|clusion |
|00002130| 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 74 | 72 75 65 20 6f 72 20 66 |can be t|rue or f|
|00002140| 61 6c 73 65 2e 0a 0a 20 | 20 20 54 20 20 20 20 20 |alse... |  T     |
|00002150| 20 20 20 46 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 20 20 20 46 20 20 |   F    |     F  |
|00002160| 20 20 20 20 49 66 20 74 | 68 65 20 70 72 65 6d 69 |    If t|he premi|
|00002170| 73 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 | 74 72 75 65 20 61 6e 64 |ses are |true and|
|00002180| 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e | 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 0a | the con|clusion.|
|00002190| 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |        |        |
|000021a0| 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 20 20 20 66 61 6c |        |     fal|
|000021b0| 73 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 | 69 6e 66 65 72 65 6e 63 |se, the |inferenc|
|000021c0| 65 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 | 65 20 69 6e 76 61 6c 69 |e must b|e invali|
|000021d0| 64 2e 0a 0a 20 20 20 54 | 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |d...   T|        |
|000021e0| 54 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 54 20 20 20 20 20 |T       |  T     |
|000021f0| 20 49 66 20 74 68 65 20 | 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 | If the |premises|
|00002200| 20 61 72 65 20 74 72 75 | 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 | are tru|e and th|
|00002210| 65 20 69 6e 66 65 72 65 | 6e 63 65 20 76 61 6c 69 |e infere|nce vali|
|00002220| 64 2c 0a 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |d,.     |        |
|00002230| 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |        |        |
|00002240| 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 | 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 6d |the conc|lusion m|
|00002250| 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 74 | 72 75 65 2e 0a 0a 41 20 |ust be t|rue...A |
|00002260| 73 6f 75 6e 64 20 61 72 | 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 |sound ar|gument i|
|00002270| 73 20 61 20 76 61 6c 69 | 64 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 |s a vali|d argume|
|00002280| 6e 74 20 77 68 6f 73 65 | 20 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 |nt whose| premise|
|00002290| 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 72 | 75 65 2e 20 20 41 20 73 |s are tr|ue.  A s|
|000022a0| 6f 75 6e 64 20 0a 61 72 | 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 74 |ound .ar|gument t|
|000022b0| 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 | 20 61 72 72 69 76 65 73 |herefore| arrives|
|000022c0| 20 61 74 20 61 20 74 72 | 75 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c | at a tr|ue concl|
|000022d0| 75 73 69 6f 6e 2e 20 20 | 42 65 20 63 61 72 65 66 |usion.  |Be caref|
|000022e0| 75 6c 20 6e 6f 74 20 74 | 6f 20 63 6f 6e 66 75 73 |ul not t|o confus|
|000022f0| 65 0a 76 61 6c 69 64 20 | 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 |e.valid |argument|
|00002300| 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 73 | 6f 75 6e 64 20 61 72 67 |s with s|ound arg|
|00002310| 75 6d 65 6e 74 73 2e 0a | 0a 54 6f 20 64 65 6c 76 |uments..|.To delv|
|00002320| 65 20 66 75 72 74 68 65 | 72 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 |e furthe|r into t|
|00002330| 68 65 20 73 74 72 75 63 | 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 |he struc|ture of |
|00002340| 6c 6f 67 69 63 61 6c 20 | 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 |logical |argument|
|00002350| 73 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 | 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 0a |s would |require.|
|00002360| 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 79 20 | 64 69 73 63 75 73 73 69 |lengthy |discussi|
|00002370| 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 | 6e 67 75 69 73 74 69 63 |on of li|nguistic|
|00002380| 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 68 | 69 6c 6f 73 6f 70 68 79 |s and ph|ilosophy|
|00002390| 2e 20 20 49 74 20 69 73 | 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 72 |.  It is| simpler|
|000023a0| 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f | 62 61 62 6c 79 0a 6d 6f | and pro|bably.mo|
|000023b0| 72 65 20 75 73 65 66 75 | 6c 20 74 6f 20 73 75 6d |re usefu|l to sum|
|000023c0| 6d 61 72 69 7a 65 20 74 | 68 65 20 6d 61 6a 6f 72 |marize t|he major|
|000023d0| 20 70 69 74 66 61 6c 6c | 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 | pitfall|s to be |
|000023e0| 61 76 6f 69 64 65 64 20 | 77 68 65 6e 20 63 6f 6e |avoided |when con|
|000023f0| 73 74 72 75 63 74 69 6e | 67 0a 61 6e 20 61 72 67 |structin|g.an arg|
|00002400| 75 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 20 | 54 68 65 73 65 20 70 69 |ument.  |These pi|
|00002410| 74 66 61 6c 6c 73 20 61 | 72 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e |tfalls a|re known|
|00002420| 20 61 73 20 66 61 6c 6c | 61 63 69 65 73 2e 0a 0a | as fall|acies...|
|00002430| 49 6e 20 65 76 65 72 79 | 64 61 79 20 45 6e 67 6c |In every|day Engl|
|00002440| 69 73 68 20 74 68 65 20 | 74 65 72 6d 20 22 66 61 |ish the |term "fa|
|00002450| 6c 6c 61 63 79 22 20 69 | 73 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 |llacy" i|s used t|
|00002460| 6f 20 72 65 66 65 72 20 | 74 6f 20 6d 69 73 74 61 |o refer |to mista|
|00002470| 6b 65 6e 20 62 65 6c 69 | 65 66 73 0a 61 73 20 77 |ken beli|efs.as w|
|00002480| 65 6c 6c 20 61 73 20 74 | 6f 20 74 68 65 20 66 61 |ell as t|o the fa|
|00002490| 75 6c 74 79 20 72 65 61 | 73 6f 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 |ulty rea|soning t|
|000024a0| 68 61 74 20 6c 65 61 64 | 73 20 74 6f 20 74 68 6f |hat lead|s to tho|
|000024b0| 73 65 20 62 65 6c 69 65 | 66 73 2e 20 20 54 68 69 |se belie|fs.  Thi|
|000024c0| 73 20 69 73 20 66 61 69 | 72 0a 65 6e 6f 75 67 68 |s is fai|r.enough|
|000024d0| 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 6e | 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 20 74 |, but in| logic t|
|000024e0| 68 65 20 74 65 72 6d 20 | 69 73 20 67 65 6e 65 72 |he term |is gener|
|000024f0| 61 6c 6c 79 20 75 73 65 | 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 66 |ally use|d to ref|
|00002500| 65 72 20 74 6f 20 61 20 | 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 66 0a |er to a |form of.|
|00002510| 74 65 63 68 6e 69 63 61 | 6c 6c 79 20 69 6e 63 6f |technica|lly inco|
|00002520| 72 72 65 63 74 20 61 72 | 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 |rrect ar|gument, |
|00002530| 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c | 6c 79 20 69 66 20 74 68 |especial|ly if th|
|00002540| 65 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 | 6e 74 20 61 70 70 65 61 |e argume|nt appea|
|00002550| 72 73 20 76 61 6c 69 64 | 20 6f 72 0a 63 6f 6e 76 |rs valid| or.conv|
|00002560| 69 6e 63 69 6e 67 2e 0a | 0a 53 6f 20 66 6f 72 20 |incing..|.So for |
|00002570| 74 68 65 20 70 75 72 70 | 6f 73 65 73 20 6f 66 20 |the purp|oses of |
|00002580| 74 68 69 73 20 64 69 73 | 63 75 73 73 69 6f 6e 2c |this dis|cussion,|
|00002590| 20 77 65 20 64 65 66 69 | 6e 65 20 61 20 66 61 6c | we defi|ne a fal|
|000025a0| 6c 61 63 79 20 61 73 20 | 61 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 61 |lacy as |a logica|
|000025b0| 6c 0a 61 72 67 75 6d 65 | 6e 74 20 77 68 69 63 68 |l.argume|nt which|
|000025c0| 20 61 70 70 65 61 72 73 | 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 63 | appears| to be c|
|000025d0| 6f 72 72 65 63 74 2c 20 | 62 75 74 20 77 68 69 63 |orrect, |but whic|
|000025e0| 68 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 | 20 73 65 65 6e 20 74 6f |h can be| seen to|
|000025f0| 20 62 65 20 69 6e 63 6f | 72 72 65 63 74 0a 77 68 | be inco|rrect.wh|
|00002600| 65 6e 20 65 78 61 6d 69 | 6e 65 64 20 6d 6f 72 65 |en exami|ned more|
|00002610| 20 63 6c 6f 73 65 6c 79 | 2e 20 20 42 79 20 73 74 | closely|.  By st|
|00002620| 75 64 79 69 6e 67 20 66 | 61 6c 6c 61 63 69 65 73 |udying f|allacies|
|00002630| 20 77 65 20 61 69 6d 20 | 74 6f 20 61 76 6f 69 64 | we aim |to avoid|
|00002640| 20 62 65 69 6e 67 0a 6d | 69 73 6c 65 64 20 62 79 | being.m|isled by|
|00002650| 20 74 68 65 6d 2e 0a 0a | 42 65 6c 6f 77 20 69 73 | them...|Below is|
|00002660| 20 61 20 6c 69 73 74 20 | 6f 66 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 | a list |of some |
|00002670| 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 66 | 61 6c 6c 61 63 69 65 73 |common f|allacies|
|00002680| 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6c | 73 6f 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 |, and al|so some |
|00002690| 72 68 65 74 6f 72 69 63 | 61 6c 0a 64 65 76 69 63 |rhetoric|al.devic|
|000026a0| 65 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e | 20 75 73 65 64 20 69 6e |es often| used in|
|000026b0| 20 64 65 62 61 74 65 2e | 20 20 54 68 65 20 6c 69 | debate.|  The li|
|000026c0| 73 74 20 69 73 20 6e 6f | 74 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 64 |st is no|t intend|
|000026d0| 65 64 20 74 6f 20 62 65 | 20 65 78 68 61 75 73 74 |ed to be| exhaust|
|000026e0| 69 76 65 2e 0a 0a 41 52 | 47 55 4d 45 4e 54 55 4d |ive...AR|GUMENTUM|
|000026f0| 20 41 44 20 42 41 43 55 | 4c 55 4d 20 28 41 50 50 | AD BACU|LUM (APP|
|00002700| 45 41 4c 20 54 4f 20 46 | 4f 52 43 45 29 0a 0a 54 |EAL TO F|ORCE)..T|
|00002710| 68 65 20 41 70 70 65 61 | 6c 20 74 6f 20 46 6f 72 |he Appea|l to For|
|00002720| 63 65 20 69 73 20 63 6f | 6d 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 |ce is co|mmitted |
|00002730| 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 | 20 61 72 67 75 65 72 20 |when the| arguer |
|00002740| 72 65 73 6f 72 74 73 20 | 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 63 65 |resorts |to force|
|00002750| 20 6f 72 20 74 68 65 0a | 74 68 72 65 61 74 20 6f | or the.|threat o|
|00002760| 66 20 66 6f 72 63 65 20 | 69 6e 20 6f 72 64 65 72 |f force |in order|
|00002770| 20 74 6f 20 74 72 79 20 | 61 6e 64 20 70 75 73 68 | to try |and push|
|00002780| 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 63 | 65 70 74 61 6e 63 65 20 | the acc|eptance |
|00002790| 6f 66 20 61 20 63 6f 6e | 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 2e |of a con|clusion.|
|000027a0| 20 20 49 74 0a 69 73 20 | 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 75 73 |  It.is |often us|
|000027b0| 65 64 20 62 79 20 70 6f | 6c 69 74 69 63 69 61 6e |ed by po|litician|
|000027c0| 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 | 61 6e 20 62 65 20 73 75 |s, and c|an be su|
|000027d0| 6d 6d 61 72 69 7a 65 64 | 20 61 73 20 22 6d 69 67 |mmarized| as "mig|
|000027e0| 68 74 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 | 20 72 69 67 68 74 22 2e |ht makes| right".|
|000027f0| 20 0a 54 68 65 20 66 6f | 72 63 65 20 74 68 72 65 | .The fo|rce thre|
|00002800| 61 74 65 6e 65 64 20 6e | 65 65 64 20 6e 6f 74 20 |atened n|eed not |
|00002810| 62 65 20 61 20 64 69 72 | 65 63 74 20 74 68 72 65 |be a dir|ect thre|
|00002820| 61 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 | 74 68 65 20 61 72 67 75 |at from |the argu|
|00002830| 65 72 2e 0a 0a 46 6f 72 | 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 |er...For| example|
|00002840| 3a 0a 22 2e 2e 2e 20 54 | 68 75 73 20 74 68 65 72 |:."... T|hus ther|
|00002850| 65 20 69 73 20 61 6d 70 | 6c 65 20 70 72 6f 6f 66 |e is amp|le proof|
|00002860| 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 | 74 72 75 74 68 20 6f 66 | of the |truth of|
|00002870| 20 74 68 65 20 42 69 62 | 6c 65 2e 20 20 41 6c 6c | the Bib|le.  All|
|00002880| 20 74 68 6f 73 65 20 77 | 68 6f 0a 72 65 66 75 73 | those w|ho.refus|
|00002890| 65 20 74 6f 20 61 63 63 | 65 70 74 20 74 68 61 74 |e to acc|ept that|
|000028a0| 20 74 72 75 74 68 20 77 | 69 6c 6c 20 62 75 72 6e | truth w|ill burn|
|000028b0| 20 69 6e 20 48 65 6c 6c | 2e 22 0a 0a 41 52 47 55 | in Hell|."..ARGU|
|000028c0| 4d 45 4e 54 55 4d 20 41 | 44 20 48 4f 4d 49 4e 45 |MENTUM A|D HOMINE|
|000028d0| 4d 0a 0a 41 72 67 75 6d | 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 61 64 |M..Argum|entum ad|
|000028e0| 20 68 6f 6d 69 6e 65 6d | 20 69 73 20 6c 69 74 65 | hominem| is lite|
|000028f0| 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 22 61 | 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 |rally "a|rgument |
|00002900| 64 69 72 65 63 74 65 64 | 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 |directed| at the |
|00002910| 6d 61 6e 22 2e 0a 0a 54 | 68 65 20 41 62 75 73 69 |man"...T|he Abusi|
|00002920| 76 65 20 76 61 72 69 65 | 74 79 20 6f 66 20 41 72 |ve varie|ty of Ar|
|00002930| 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d | 20 61 64 20 48 6f 6d 69 |gumentum| ad Homi|
|00002940| 6e 65 6d 20 6f 63 63 75 | 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e 2c |nem occu|rs when,|
|00002950| 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 | 20 6f 66 20 74 72 79 69 | instead| of tryi|
|00002960| 6e 67 0a 74 6f 20 64 69 | 73 70 72 6f 76 65 20 74 |ng.to di|sprove t|
|00002970| 68 65 20 74 72 75 74 68 | 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 |he truth| of an a|
|00002980| 73 73 65 72 74 69 6f 6e | 2c 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 |ssertion|, the ar|
|00002990| 67 75 65 72 20 61 74 74 | 61 63 6b 73 20 74 68 65 |guer att|acks the|
|000029a0| 20 70 65 72 73 6f 6e 20 | 6f 72 0a 70 65 6f 70 6c | person |or.peopl|
|000029b0| 65 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 | 20 74 68 65 20 61 73 73 |e making| the ass|
|000029c0| 65 72 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 | 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 |ertion. | This is|
|000029d0| 20 69 6e 76 61 6c 69 64 | 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 | invalid| because|
|000029e0| 20 74 68 65 20 74 72 75 | 74 68 20 6f 66 20 61 6e | the tru|th of an|
|000029f0| 0a 61 73 73 65 72 74 69 | 6f 6e 20 64 6f 65 73 20 |.asserti|on does |
|00002a00| 6e 6f 74 20 64 65 70 65 | 6e 64 20 75 70 6f 6e 20 |not depe|nd upon |
|00002a10| 74 68 65 20 67 6f 6f 64 | 6e 65 73 73 20 6f 66 20 |the good|ness of |
|00002a20| 74 68 6f 73 65 20 61 73 | 73 65 72 74 69 6e 67 20 |those as|serting |
|00002a30| 69 74 2e 0a 0a 46 6f 72 | 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 |it...For| example|
|00002a40| 3a 0a 22 41 74 68 65 69 | 73 6d 20 69 73 20 61 6e |:."Athei|sm is an|
|00002a50| 20 65 76 69 6c 20 70 68 | 69 6c 6f 73 6f 70 68 79 | evil ph|ilosophy|
|00002a60| 2e 20 20 49 74 20 69 73 | 20 70 72 61 63 74 69 73 |.  It is| practis|
|00002a70| 65 64 20 62 79 20 43 6f | 6d 6d 75 6e 69 73 74 73 |ed by Co|mmunists|
|00002a80| 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 75 72 | 64 65 72 65 72 73 2e 22 | and mur|derers."|
|00002a90| 0a 0a 53 6f 6d 65 74 69 | 6d 65 73 20 69 6e 20 61 |..Someti|mes in a|
|00002aa0| 20 63 6f 75 72 74 20 6f | 66 20 6c 61 77 20 64 6f | court o|f law do|
|00002ab0| 75 62 74 20 69 73 20 63 | 61 73 74 20 75 70 6f 6e |ubt is c|ast upon|
|00002ac0| 20 74 68 65 20 74 65 73 | 74 69 6d 6f 6e 79 20 6f | the tes|timony o|
|00002ad0| 66 20 61 20 77 69 74 6e | 65 73 73 20 62 79 20 0a |f a witn|ess by .|
|00002ae0| 73 68 6f 77 69 6e 67 2c | 20 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 |showing,| for exa|
|00002af0| 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 74 68 | 61 74 20 68 65 20 69 73 |mple, th|at he is|
|00002b00| 20 61 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e | 20 70 65 72 6a 75 72 65 | a known| perjure|
|00002b10| 72 2e 20 20 54 68 69 73 | 20 69 73 20 61 20 76 61 |r.  This| is a va|
|00002b20| 6c 69 64 20 77 61 79 20 | 6f 66 0a 72 65 64 75 63 |lid way |of.reduc|
|00002b30| 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 | 63 72 65 64 69 62 69 6c |ing the |credibil|
|00002b40| 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 74 | 68 65 20 74 65 73 74 69 |ity of t|he testi|
|00002b50| 6d 6f 6e 79 20 67 69 76 | 65 6e 20 62 79 20 74 68 |mony giv|en by th|
|00002b60| 65 20 77 69 74 6e 65 73 | 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e |e witnes|s, and n|
|00002b70| 6f 74 0a 61 72 67 75 6d | 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 61 64 |ot.argum|entum ad|
|00002b80| 20 68 6f 6d 69 6e 65 6d | 3b 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 | hominem|; howeve|
|00002b90| 72 2c 20 69 74 20 64 6f | 65 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 64 |r, it do|es not d|
|00002ba0| 65 6d 6f 6e 73 74 72 61 | 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 |emonstra|te that |
|00002bb0| 74 68 65 20 77 69 74 6e | 65 73 73 27 73 0a 74 65 |the witn|ess's.te|
|00002bc0| 73 74 69 6d 6f 6e 79 20 | 69 73 20 66 61 6c 73 65 |stimony |is false|
|00002bd0| 2e 20 20 54 6f 20 63 6f | 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 6f |.  To co|nclude o|
|00002be0| 74 68 65 72 77 69 73 65 | 20 69 73 20 74 6f 20 66 |therwise| is to f|
|00002bf0| 61 6c 6c 20 76 69 63 74 | 69 6d 20 6f 66 20 74 68 |all vict|im of th|
|00002c00| 65 0a 41 72 67 75 6d 65 | 6e 74 75 6d 20 61 64 20 |e.Argume|ntum ad |
|00002c10| 49 67 6e 6f 72 61 6e 74 | 69 61 6d 20 28 73 65 65 |Ignorant|iam (see|
|00002c20| 20 65 6c 73 65 77 68 65 | 72 65 20 69 6e 20 74 68 | elsewhe|re in th|
|00002c30| 69 73 20 6c 69 73 74 29 | 2e 0a 0a 54 68 65 20 63 |is list)|...The c|
|00002c40| 69 72 63 75 6d 73 74 61 | 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 66 6f |ircumsta|ntial fo|
|00002c50| 72 6d 20 6f 66 20 41 72 | 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d |rm of Ar|gumentum|
|00002c60| 20 61 64 20 48 6f 6d 69 | 6e 65 6d 20 69 73 20 63 | ad Homi|nem is c|
|00002c70| 6f 6d 6d 69 74 74 65 64 | 20 77 68 65 6e 20 61 20 |ommitted| when a |
|00002c80| 70 65 72 73 6f 6e 0a 61 | 72 67 75 65 73 20 74 68 |person.a|rgues th|
|00002c90| 61 74 20 68 69 73 20 6f | 70 70 6f 6e 65 6e 74 20 |at his o|pponent |
|00002ca0| 6f 75 67 68 74 20 74 6f | 20 61 63 63 65 70 74 20 |ought to| accept |
|00002cb0| 74 68 65 20 74 72 75 74 | 68 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 |the trut|h of an |
|00002cc0| 61 73 73 65 72 74 69 6f | 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 |assertio|n becaus|
|00002cd0| 65 20 6f 66 0a 74 68 65 | 20 6f 70 70 6f 6e 65 6e |e of.the| opponen|
|00002ce0| 74 27 73 20 70 61 72 74 | 69 63 75 6c 61 72 20 63 |t's part|icular c|
|00002cf0| 69 72 63 75 6d 73 74 61 | 6e 63 65 73 2e 0a 0a 46 |ircumsta|nces...F|
|00002d00| 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 | 6c 65 3a 0a 22 49 74 20 |or examp|le:."It |
|00002d10| 69 73 20 70 65 72 66 65 | 63 74 6c 79 20 61 63 63 |is perfe|ctly acc|
|00002d20| 65 70 74 61 62 6c 65 20 | 74 6f 20 6b 69 6c 6c 20 |eptable |to kill |
|00002d30| 61 6e 69 6d 61 6c 73 20 | 66 6f 72 20 66 6f 6f 64 |animals |for food|
|00002d40| 2e 20 20 48 6f 77 20 63 | 61 6e 20 79 6f 75 20 61 |.  How c|an you a|
|00002d50| 72 67 75 65 0a 6f 74 68 | 65 72 77 69 73 65 20 77 |rgue.oth|erwise w|
|00002d60| 68 65 6e 20 79 6f 75 27 | 72 65 20 71 75 69 74 65 |hen you'|re quite|
|00002d70| 20 68 61 70 70 79 20 74 | 6f 20 77 65 61 72 20 6c | happy t|o wear l|
|00002d80| 65 61 74 68 65 72 20 73 | 68 6f 65 73 3f 22 0a 0a |eather s|hoes?"..|
|00002d90| 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 | 61 6e 20 61 62 75 73 69 |This is |an abusi|
|00002da0| 76 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 | 65 20 6f 66 20 69 6e 63 |ve charg|e of inc|
|00002db0| 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 65 6e | 63 79 2c 20 75 73 65 64 |onsisten|cy, used|
|00002dc0| 20 61 73 20 61 6e 20 65 | 78 63 75 73 65 20 66 6f | as an e|xcuse fo|
|00002dd0| 72 20 64 69 73 6d 69 73 | 73 69 6e 67 0a 74 68 65 |r dismis|sing.the|
|00002de0| 20 6f 70 70 6f 6e 65 6e | 74 27 73 20 61 72 67 75 | opponen|t's argu|
|00002df0| 6d 65 6e 74 2e 0a 0a 54 | 68 69 73 20 66 61 6c 6c |ment...T|his fall|
|00002e00| 61 63 79 20 63 61 6e 20 | 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 65 20 |acy can |also be |
|00002e10| 75 73 65 64 20 61 73 20 | 61 20 6d 65 61 6e 73 20 |used as |a means |
|00002e20| 6f 66 20 72 65 6a 65 63 | 74 69 6e 67 20 61 20 63 |of rejec|ting a c|
|00002e30| 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f | 6e 2e 20 20 46 6f 72 20 |onclusio|n.  For |
|00002e40| 0a 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 | 3a 0a 0a 22 4f 66 20 63 |.example|:.."Of c|
|00002e50| 6f 75 72 73 65 20 79 6f | 75 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 |ourse yo|u would |
|00002e60| 61 72 67 75 65 20 74 68 | 61 74 20 70 6f 73 69 74 |argue th|at posit|
|00002e70| 69 76 65 20 64 69 73 63 | 72 69 6d 69 6e 61 74 69 |ive disc|riminati|
|00002e80| 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 20 | 62 61 64 20 74 68 69 6e |on is a |bad thin|
|00002e90| 67 2e 20 0a 59 6f 75 27 | 72 65 20 77 68 69 74 65 |g. .You'|re white|
|00002ea0| 2e 22 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 | 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 75 |."..This| particu|
|00002eb0| 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 6d | 20 6f 66 20 41 72 67 75 |lar form| of Argu|
|00002ec0| 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 61 | 64 20 48 6f 6d 69 6e 65 |mentum a|d Homine|
|00002ed0| 6d 2c 20 77 68 65 6e 20 | 6f 6e 65 20 61 6c 6c 65 |m, when |one alle|
|00002ee0| 67 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 | 20 6f 6e 65 27 73 0a 61 |ges that| one's.a|
|00002ef0| 64 76 65 72 73 61 72 79 | 20 69 73 20 72 61 74 69 |dversary| is rati|
|00002f00| 6f 6e 61 6c 69 7a 69 6e | 67 20 61 20 63 6f 6e 63 |onalizin|g a conc|
|00002f10| 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 66 | 6f 72 6d 65 64 20 66 72 |lusion f|ormed fr|
|00002f20| 6f 6d 20 73 65 6c 66 69 | 73 68 20 69 6e 74 65 72 |om selfi|sh inter|
|00002f30| 65 73 74 73 2c 20 69 73 | 0a 61 6c 73 6f 20 6b 6e |ests, is|.also kn|
|00002f40| 6f 77 6e 20 61 73 20 22 | 70 6f 69 73 6f 6e 69 6e |own as "|poisonin|
|00002f50| 67 20 74 68 65 20 77 65 | 6c 6c 22 2e 0a 0a 41 52 |g the we|ll"...AR|
|00002f60| 47 55 4d 45 4e 54 55 4d | 20 41 44 20 49 47 4e 4f |GUMENTUM| AD IGNO|
|00002f70| 52 41 4e 54 49 41 4d 0a | 0a 41 72 67 75 6d 65 6e |RANTIAM.|.Argumen|
|00002f80| 74 75 6d 20 61 64 20 69 | 67 6e 6f 72 61 6e 74 69 |tum ad i|gnoranti|
|00002f90| 61 6d 20 6d 65 61 6e 73 | 20 22 61 72 67 75 6d 65 |am means| "argume|
|00002fa0| 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 | 69 67 6e 6f 72 61 6e 63 |nt from |ignoranc|
|00002fb0| 65 22 2e 20 20 54 68 69 | 73 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 |e".  Thi|s fallac|
|00002fc0| 79 0a 6f 63 63 75 72 73 | 20 77 68 65 6e 65 76 65 |y.occurs| wheneve|
|00002fd0| 72 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 | 61 72 67 75 65 64 20 74 |r it is |argued t|
|00002fe0| 68 61 74 20 73 6f 6d 65 | 74 68 69 6e 67 20 6d 75 |hat some|thing mu|
|00002ff0| 73 74 20 62 65 20 74 72 | 75 65 20 73 69 6d 70 6c |st be tr|ue simpl|
|00003000| 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 | 65 20 69 74 0a 68 61 73 |y becaus|e it.has|
|00003010| 20 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 65 | 6e 20 70 72 6f 76 65 64 | not bee|n proved|
|00003020| 20 66 61 6c 73 65 2e 20 | 20 4f 72 2c 20 65 71 75 | false. | Or, equ|
|00003030| 69 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 6c | 79 2c 20 77 68 65 6e 20 |ivalentl|y, when |
|00003040| 69 74 20 69 73 20 61 72 | 67 75 65 64 20 74 68 61 |it is ar|gued tha|
|00003050| 74 0a 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 | 69 6e 67 20 6d 75 73 74 |t.someth|ing must|
|00003060| 20 62 65 20 66 61 6c 73 | 65 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 | be fals|e becaus|
|00003070| 65 20 69 74 20 68 61 73 | 20 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 65 |e it has| not bee|
|00003080| 6e 20 70 72 6f 76 65 64 | 20 74 72 75 65 2e 20 20 |n proved| true.  |
|00003090| 28 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 | 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 0a |(Note th|at this.|
|000030a0| 69 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 74 | 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 |is not t|he same |
|000030b0| 61 73 20 61 73 73 75 6d | 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 |as assum|ing that|
|000030c0| 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 | 6e 67 20 69 73 20 66 61 | somethi|ng is fa|
|000030d0| 6c 73 65 20 75 6e 74 69 | 6c 20 69 74 20 68 61 73 |lse unti|l it has|
|000030e0| 20 62 65 65 6e 20 70 72 | 6f 76 65 64 0a 74 72 75 | been pr|oved.tru|
|000030f0| 65 2c 20 61 20 62 61 73 | 69 63 20 73 63 69 65 6e |e, a bas|ic scien|
|00003100| 74 69 66 69 63 20 70 72 | 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 2e |tific pr|inciple.|
|00003110| 29 0a 0a 45 78 61 6d 70 | 6c 65 73 3a 0a 22 4f 66 |)..Examp|les:."Of|
|00003120| 20 63 6f 75 72 73 65 20 | 74 68 65 20 42 69 62 6c | course |the Bibl|
|00003130| 65 20 69 73 20 74 72 75 | 65 2e 20 20 4e 6f 62 6f |e is tru|e.  Nobo|
|00003140| 64 79 20 63 61 6e 20 70 | 72 6f 76 65 20 6f 74 68 |dy can p|rove oth|
|00003150| 65 72 77 69 73 65 2e 22 | 0a 0a 22 4f 66 20 63 6f |erwise."|.."Of co|
|00003160| 75 72 73 65 20 74 65 6c | 65 70 61 74 68 79 20 61 |urse tel|epathy a|
|00003170| 6e 64 20 6f 74 68 65 72 | 20 70 73 79 63 68 69 63 |nd other| psychic|
|00003180| 20 70 68 65 6e 6f 6d 65 | 6e 61 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f | phenome|na do no|
|00003190| 74 20 65 78 69 73 74 2e | 20 20 4e 6f 62 6f 64 79 |t exist.|  Nobody|
|000031a0| 20 68 61 73 0a 73 68 6f | 77 6e 20 61 6e 79 20 70 | has.sho|wn any p|
|000031b0| 72 6f 6f 66 20 74 68 61 | 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 |roof tha|t they a|
|000031c0| 72 65 20 72 65 61 6c 2e | 22 0a 0a 4e 6f 74 65 20 |re real.|"..Note |
|000031d0| 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 | 73 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 |that thi|s fallac|
|000031e0| 79 20 64 6f 65 73 20 6e | 6f 74 20 61 70 70 6c 79 |y does n|ot apply|
|000031f0| 20 69 6e 20 61 20 63 6f | 75 72 74 20 6f 66 20 6c | in a co|urt of l|
|00003200| 61 77 2c 20 77 68 65 72 | 65 20 6f 6e 65 20 69 73 |aw, wher|e one is|
|00003210| 0a 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c | 6c 79 20 61 73 73 75 6d |.general|ly assum|
|00003220| 65 64 20 69 6e 6e 6f 63 | 65 6e 74 20 75 6e 74 69 |ed innoc|ent unti|
|00003230| 6c 20 70 72 6f 76 65 6e | 20 67 75 69 6c 74 79 2e |l proven| guilty.|
|00003240| 0a 0a 41 6c 73 6f 2c 20 | 69 6e 20 73 63 69 65 6e |..Also, |in scien|
|00003250| 74 69 66 69 63 20 69 6e | 76 65 73 74 69 67 61 74 |tific in|vestigat|
|00003260| 69 6f 6e 20 69 66 20 69 | 74 20 69 73 20 6b 6e 6f |ion if i|t is kno|
|00003270| 77 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 | 61 6e 20 65 76 65 6e 74 |wn that |an event|
|00003280| 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 70 | 72 6f 64 75 63 65 0a 63 | would p|roduce.c|
|00003290| 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 65 | 76 69 64 65 6e 63 65 20 |ertain e|vidence |
|000032a0| 6f 66 20 69 74 73 20 68 | 61 76 69 6e 67 20 6f 63 |of its h|aving oc|
|000032b0| 63 75 72 72 65 64 2c 20 | 74 68 65 20 61 62 73 65 |curred, |the abse|
|000032c0| 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 73 | 75 63 68 20 65 76 69 64 |nce of s|uch evid|
|000032d0| 65 6e 63 65 20 63 61 6e | 20 0a 76 61 6c 69 64 6c |ence can| .validl|
|000032e0| 79 20 62 65 20 75 73 65 | 64 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 66 |y be use|d to inf|
|000032f0| 65 72 20 74 68 61 74 20 | 74 68 65 20 65 76 65 6e |er that |the even|
|00003300| 74 20 64 69 64 20 6e 6f | 74 20 6f 63 63 75 72 2e |t did no|t occur.|
|00003310| 20 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 | 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a |  For ex|ample:..|
|00003320| 22 41 20 66 6c 6f 6f 64 | 20 61 73 20 64 65 73 63 |"A flood| as desc|
|00003330| 72 69 62 65 64 20 69 6e | 20 74 68 65 20 42 69 62 |ribed in| the Bib|
|00003340| 6c 65 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 | 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 |le would| require|
|00003350| 20 61 6e 20 65 6e 6f 72 | 6d 6f 75 73 20 76 6f 6c | an enor|mous vol|
|00003360| 75 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 77 | 61 74 65 72 0a 74 6f 20 |ume of w|ater.to |
|00003370| 62 65 20 70 72 65 73 65 | 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 |be prese|nt on th|
|00003380| 65 20 65 61 72 74 68 2e | 20 20 54 68 65 20 65 61 |e earth.|  The ea|
|00003390| 72 74 68 20 64 6f 65 73 | 20 6e 6f 74 20 68 61 76 |rth does| not hav|
|000033a0| 65 20 61 20 74 65 6e 74 | 68 20 61 73 20 6d 75 63 |e a tent|h as muc|
|000033b0| 68 20 77 61 74 65 72 2c | 0a 65 76 65 6e 20 69 66 |h water,|.even if|
|000033c0| 20 77 65 20 63 6f 75 6e | 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 77 | we coun|t that w|
|000033d0| 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 | 66 72 6f 7a 65 6e 20 69 |hich is |frozen i|
|000033e0| 6e 74 6f 20 69 63 65 20 | 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 70 |nto ice |at the p|
|000033f0| 6f 6c 65 73 2e 20 20 54 | 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 |oles.  T|herefore|
|00003400| 20 6e 6f 0a 73 75 63 68 | 20 66 6c 6f 6f 64 20 6f | no.such| flood o|
|00003410| 63 63 75 72 72 65 64 2e | 22 0a 0a 49 6e 20 73 63 |ccurred.|"..In sc|
|00003420| 69 65 6e 63 65 2c 20 77 | 65 20 63 61 6e 20 76 61 |ience, w|e can va|
|00003430| 6c 69 64 6c 79 20 61 73 | 73 75 6d 65 20 66 72 6f |lidly as|sume fro|
|00003440| 6d 20 6c 61 63 6b 20 6f | 66 20 65 76 69 64 65 6e |m lack o|f eviden|
|00003450| 63 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 | 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 6e |ce that |somethin|
|00003460| 67 20 68 61 73 0a 6e 6f | 74 20 6f 63 63 75 72 72 |g has.no|t occurr|
|00003470| 65 64 2e 20 20 57 65 20 | 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 63 |ed.  We |cannot c|
|00003480| 6f 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 | 77 69 74 68 20 63 65 72 |onclude |with cer|
|00003490| 74 61 69 6e 74 79 20 74 | 68 61 74 20 69 74 20 68 |tainty t|hat it h|
|000034a0| 61 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 6f | 63 63 75 72 72 65 64 2c |as not o|ccurred,|
|000034b0| 0a 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 | 2e 0a 0a 41 52 47 55 4d |.however|...ARGUM|
|000034c0| 45 4e 54 55 4d 20 41 44 | 20 4d 49 53 45 52 49 43 |ENTUM AD| MISERIC|
|000034d0| 4f 52 44 49 41 4d 0a 0a | 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 |ORDIAM..|This is |
|000034e0| 74 68 65 20 41 70 70 65 | 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 50 69 |the Appe|al to Pi|
|000034f0| 74 79 2c 20 61 6c 73 6f | 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 61 |ty, also| known a|
|00003500| 73 20 53 70 65 63 69 61 | 6c 20 50 6c 65 61 64 69 |s Specia|l Pleadi|
|00003510| 6e 67 2e 20 20 54 68 65 | 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 |ng.  The| fallacy|
|00003520| 20 69 73 20 0a 63 6f 6d | 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 77 | is .com|mitted w|
|00003530| 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 | 61 72 67 75 65 72 20 61 |hen the |arguer a|
|00003540| 70 70 65 61 6c 73 20 74 | 6f 20 70 69 74 79 20 66 |ppeals t|o pity f|
|00003550| 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 73 | 61 6b 65 20 6f 66 20 67 |or the s|ake of g|
|00003560| 65 74 74 69 6e 67 20 61 | 20 0a 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 |etting a| .conclu|
|00003570| 73 69 6f 6e 20 61 63 63 | 65 70 74 65 64 2e 20 20 |sion acc|epted.  |
|00003580| 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d | 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 49 |For exam|ple:.."I|
|00003590| 20 64 69 64 20 6e 6f 74 | 20 6d 75 72 64 65 72 20 | did not| murder |
|000035a0| 6d 79 20 6d 6f 74 68 65 | 72 20 61 6e 64 20 66 61 |my mothe|r and fa|
|000035b0| 74 68 65 72 20 77 69 74 | 68 20 61 6e 20 61 78 65 |ther wit|h an axe|
|000035c0| 2e 20 20 50 6c 65 61 73 | 65 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 20 |.  Pleas|e don't |
|000035d0| 66 69 6e 64 20 6d 65 0a | 67 75 69 6c 74 79 3b 20 |find me.|guilty; |
|000035e0| 49 27 6d 20 73 75 66 66 | 65 72 69 6e 67 20 65 6e |I'm suff|ering en|
|000035f0| 6f 75 67 68 20 74 68 72 | 6f 75 67 68 20 62 65 69 |ough thr|ough bei|
|00003600| 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 6f 72 | 70 68 61 6e 2e 22 0a 0a |ng an or|phan."..|
|00003610| 41 52 47 55 4d 45 4e 54 | 55 4d 20 41 44 20 50 4f |ARGUMENT|UM AD PO|
|00003620| 50 55 4c 55 4d 0a 0a 54 | 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 6b |PULUM..T|his is k|
|00003630| 6e 6f 77 6e 20 61 73 20 | 41 70 70 65 61 6c 69 6e |nown as |Appealin|
|00003640| 67 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 | 20 47 61 6c 6c 65 72 79 |g to the| Gallery|
|00003650| 2c 20 6f 72 20 41 70 70 | 65 61 6c 69 6e 67 20 74 |, or App|ealing t|
|00003660| 6f 20 74 68 65 20 50 65 | 6f 70 6c 65 2e 20 20 54 |o the Pe|ople.  T|
|00003670| 6f 0a 63 6f 6d 6d 69 74 | 20 74 68 69 73 20 66 61 |o.commit| this fa|
|00003680| 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 69 73 | 20 74 6f 20 61 74 74 65 |llacy is| to atte|
|00003690| 6d 70 74 20 74 6f 20 77 | 69 6e 20 61 63 63 65 70 |mpt to w|in accep|
|000036a0| 74 61 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 | 20 61 6e 20 61 73 73 65 |tance of| an asse|
|000036b0| 72 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 79 | 0a 61 70 70 65 61 6c 69 |rtion by|.appeali|
|000036c0| 6e 67 20 74 6f 20 61 20 | 6c 61 72 67 65 20 67 72 |ng to a |large gr|
|000036d0| 6f 75 70 20 6f 66 20 70 | 65 6f 70 6c 65 2e 20 20 |oup of p|eople.  |
|000036e0| 54 68 69 73 20 66 6f 72 | 6d 20 6f 66 20 66 61 6c |This for|m of fal|
|000036f0| 6c 61 63 79 20 69 73 20 | 6f 66 74 65 6e 0a 63 68 |lacy is |often.ch|
|00003700| 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 | 7a 65 64 20 62 79 20 65 |aracteri|zed by e|
|00003710| 6d 6f 74 69 76 65 20 6c | 61 6e 67 75 61 67 65 2e |motive l|anguage.|
|00003720| 20 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 | 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a |  For ex|ample:..|
|00003730| 22 50 6f 72 6e 6f 67 72 | 61 70 68 79 20 6d 75 73 |"Pornogr|aphy mus|
|00003740| 74 20 62 65 20 62 61 6e | 6e 65 64 2e 20 20 49 74 |t be ban|ned.  It|
|00003750| 20 69 73 20 76 69 6f 6c | 65 6e 63 65 20 61 67 61 | is viol|ence aga|
|00003760| 69 6e 73 74 20 77 6f 6d | 65 6e 2e 22 0a 0a 22 54 |inst wom|en.".."T|
|00003770| 68 65 20 42 69 62 6c 65 | 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 |he Bible| must be|
|00003780| 20 74 72 75 65 2e 20 20 | 4d 69 6c 6c 69 6f 6e 73 | true.  |Millions|
|00003790| 20 6f 66 20 70 65 6f 70 | 6c 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 20 | of peop|le know |
|000037a0| 74 68 61 74 20 69 74 20 | 69 73 2e 20 20 41 72 65 |that it |is.  Are|
|000037b0| 20 79 6f 75 20 74 72 79 | 69 6e 67 0a 74 6f 20 74 | you try|ing.to t|
|000037c0| 65 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 6d | 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 |ell them| that th|
|000037d0| 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 61 | 6c 6c 20 6d 69 73 74 61 |ey are a|ll mista|
|000037e0| 6b 65 6e 20 66 6f 6f 6c | 73 3f 22 0a 0a 41 52 47 |ken fool|s?"..ARG|
|000037f0| 55 4d 45 4e 54 55 4d 20 | 41 44 20 4e 55 4d 45 52 |UMENTUM |AD NUMER|
|00003800| 55 4d 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 | 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 |UM..This| fallacy|
|00003810| 20 69 73 20 63 6c 6f 73 | 65 6c 79 20 72 65 6c 61 | is clos|ely rela|
|00003820| 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 | 68 65 20 61 72 67 75 6d |ted to t|he argum|
|00003830| 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 61 64 | 20 70 6f 70 75 6c 75 6d |entum ad| populum|
|00003840| 2e 20 20 49 74 20 63 6f | 6e 73 69 73 74 73 20 6f |.  It co|nsists o|
|00003850| 66 0a 61 73 73 65 72 74 | 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 |f.assert|ing that|
|00003860| 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 72 | 65 20 70 65 6f 70 6c 65 | the mor|e people|
|00003870| 20 77 68 6f 20 73 75 70 | 70 6f 72 74 20 6f 72 20 | who sup|port or |
|00003880| 62 65 6c 69 65 76 65 20 | 61 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 |believe |a propos|
|00003890| 69 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 74 | 68 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 0a |ition, t|he more.|
|000038a0| 6c 69 6b 65 6c 79 20 69 | 74 20 69 73 20 74 68 61 |likely i|t is tha|
|000038b0| 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 | 72 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 69 |t that p|ropositi|
|000038c0| 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 63 6f | 72 72 65 63 74 2e 0a 0a |on is co|rrect...|
|000038d0| 41 52 47 55 4d 45 4e 54 | 55 4d 20 41 44 20 56 45 |ARGUMENT|UM AD VE|
|000038e0| 52 45 43 55 4e 44 49 41 | 4d 0a 0a 54 68 65 20 41 |RECUNDIA|M..The A|
|000038f0| 70 70 65 61 6c 20 74 6f | 20 41 75 74 68 6f 72 69 |ppeal to| Authori|
|00003900| 74 79 20 75 73 65 73 20 | 74 68 65 20 61 64 6d 69 |ty uses |the admi|
|00003910| 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f | 66 20 74 68 65 20 66 61 |ration o|f the fa|
|00003920| 6d 6f 75 73 20 74 6f 20 | 74 72 79 20 61 6e 64 20 |mous to |try and |
|00003930| 77 69 6e 0a 73 75 70 70 | 6f 72 74 20 66 6f 72 20 |win.supp|ort for |
|00003940| 61 6e 20 61 73 73 65 72 | 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 20 46 |an asser|tion.  F|
|00003950| 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 | 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 49 73 |or examp|le:.."Is|
|00003960| 61 61 63 20 4e 65 77 74 | 6f 6e 20 77 61 73 20 61 |aac Newt|on was a|
|00003970| 20 67 65 6e 69 75 73 20 | 61 6e 64 20 68 65 20 62 | genius |and he b|
|00003980| 65 6c 69 65 76 65 64 20 | 69 6e 20 47 6f 64 2e 22 |elieved |in God."|
|00003990| 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 20 6c | 69 6e 65 20 6f 66 20 61 |..This l|ine of a|
|000039a0| 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 | 69 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 |rgument |is not a|
|000039b0| 6c 77 61 79 73 20 63 6f | 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 |lways co|mpletely|
|000039c0| 20 62 6f 67 75 73 3b 20 | 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d | bogus; |for exam|
|000039d0| 70 6c 65 2c 20 72 65 66 | 65 72 65 6e 63 65 0a 74 |ple, ref|erence.t|
|000039e0| 6f 20 61 6e 20 61 64 6d | 69 74 74 65 64 20 61 75 |o an adm|itted au|
|000039f0| 74 68 6f 72 69 74 79 20 | 69 6e 20 61 20 70 61 72 |thority |in a par|
|00003a00| 74 69 63 75 6c 61 72 20 | 66 69 65 6c 64 20 6d 61 |ticular |field ma|
|00003a10| 79 20 62 65 20 72 65 6c | 65 76 61 6e 74 20 74 6f |y be rel|evant to|
|00003a20| 20 61 0a 64 69 73 63 75 | 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 | a.discu|ssion of|
|00003a30| 20 74 68 61 74 20 73 75 | 62 6a 65 63 74 2e 20 20 | that su|bject.  |
|00003a40| 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d | 70 6c 65 2c 20 77 65 20 |For exam|ple, we |
|00003a50| 63 61 6e 20 64 69 73 74 | 69 6e 67 75 69 73 68 20 |can dist|inguish |
|00003a60| 71 75 69 74 65 20 63 6c | 65 61 72 6c 79 0a 62 65 |quite cl|early.be|
|00003a70| 74 77 65 65 6e 3a 0a 0a | 22 53 74 65 70 68 65 6e |tween:..|"Stephen|
|00003a80| 20 48 61 77 6b 69 6e 67 | 20 68 61 73 20 63 6f 6e | Hawking| has con|
|00003a90| 63 6c 75 64 65 64 20 74 | 68 61 74 20 62 6c 61 63 |cluded t|hat blac|
|00003aa0| 6b 20 68 6f 6c 65 73 20 | 67 69 76 65 20 6f 66 66 |k holes |give off|
|00003ab0| 20 72 61 64 69 61 74 69 | 6f 6e 22 0a 61 6e 64 0a | radiati|on".and.|
|00003ac0| 22 4a 6f 68 6e 20 53 65 | 61 72 6c 65 20 68 61 73 |"John Se|arle has|
|00003ad0| 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 64 | 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 | conclud|ed that |
|00003ae0| 69 74 20 69 73 20 69 6d | 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 |it is im|possible|
|00003af0| 20 74 6f 20 62 75 69 6c | 64 20 61 6e 20 69 6e 74 | to buil|d an int|
|00003b00| 65 6c 6c 69 67 65 6e 74 | 0a 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 |elligent|. comput|
|00003b10| 65 72 22 0a 0a 48 61 77 | 6b 69 6e 67 20 69 73 20 |er"..Haw|king is |
|00003b20| 61 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 | 69 73 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 |a physic|ist, and|
|00003b30| 20 73 6f 20 77 65 20 63 | 61 6e 20 72 65 61 73 6f | so we c|an reaso|
|00003b40| 6e 61 62 6c 79 20 65 78 | 70 65 63 74 20 68 69 73 |nably ex|pect his|
|00003b50| 20 6f 70 69 6e 69 6f 6e | 73 20 6f 6e 20 62 6c 61 | opinion|s on bla|
|00003b60| 63 6b 0a 68 6f 6c 65 20 | 72 61 64 69 61 74 69 6f |ck.hole |radiatio|
|00003b70| 6e 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 | 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 65 64 |n to be |informed|
|00003b80| 2e 20 20 53 65 61 72 6c | 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 6c |.  Searl|e is a l|
|00003b90| 69 6e 67 75 69 73 74 2c | 20 73 6f 20 69 74 20 69 |inguist,| so it i|
|00003ba0| 73 20 71 75 65 73 74 69 | 6f 6e 61 62 6c 65 20 0a |s questi|onable .|
|00003bb0| 77 68 65 74 68 65 72 20 | 68 65 20 69 73 20 77 65 |whether |he is we|
|00003bc0| 6c 6c 2d 71 75 61 6c 69 | 66 69 65 64 20 74 6f 20 |ll-quali|fied to |
|00003bd0| 73 70 65 61 6b 20 6f 6e | 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 |speak on| the sub|
|00003be0| 6a 65 63 74 20 6f 66 20 | 6d 61 63 68 69 6e 65 20 |ject of |machine |
|00003bf0| 69 6e 74 65 6c 6c 69 67 | 65 6e 63 65 2e 0a 0a 54 |intellig|ence...T|
|00003c00| 48 45 20 46 41 4c 4c 41 | 43 59 20 4f 46 20 41 43 |HE FALLA|CY OF AC|
|00003c10| 43 49 44 45 4e 54 0a 0a | 54 68 65 20 46 61 6c 6c |CIDENT..|The Fall|
|00003c20| 61 63 79 20 6f 66 20 41 | 63 63 69 64 65 6e 74 20 |acy of A|ccident |
|00003c30| 69 73 20 63 6f 6d 6d 69 | 74 74 65 64 20 77 68 65 |is commi|tted whe|
|00003c40| 6e 20 61 20 67 65 6e 65 | 72 61 6c 20 72 75 6c 65 |n a gene|ral rule|
|00003c50| 20 69 73 20 61 70 70 6c | 69 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 | is appl|ied to a|
|00003c60| 0a 70 61 72 74 69 63 75 | 6c 61 72 20 63 61 73 65 |.particu|lar case|
|00003c70| 20 77 68 6f 73 65 20 22 | 61 63 63 69 64 65 6e 74 | whose "|accident|
|00003c80| 61 6c 22 20 63 69 72 63 | 75 6d 73 74 61 6e 63 65 |al" circ|umstance|
|00003c90| 73 20 6d 65 61 6e 20 74 | 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 |s mean t|hat the |
|00003ca0| 72 75 6c 65 20 69 73 0a | 69 6e 61 70 70 6c 69 63 |rule is.|inapplic|
|00003cb0| 61 62 6c 65 2e 20 20 49 | 74 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 |able.  I|t is the|
|00003cc0| 20 65 72 72 6f 72 20 6d | 61 64 65 20 77 68 65 6e | error m|ade when|
|00003cd0| 20 6f 6e 65 20 67 6f 65 | 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 | one goe|s from t|
|00003ce0| 68 65 20 67 65 6e 65 72 | 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 74 68 |he gener|al to th|
|00003cf0| 65 0a 73 70 65 63 69 66 | 69 63 2e 20 20 46 6f 72 |e.specif|ic.  For|
|00003d00| 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 | 3a 0a 0a 22 43 68 72 69 | example|:.."Chri|
|00003d10| 73 74 69 61 6e 73 20 67 | 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 |stians g|enerally|
|00003d20| 20 64 69 73 6c 69 6b 65 | 20 61 74 68 65 69 73 74 | dislike| atheist|
|00003d30| 73 2e 20 20 59 6f 75 20 | 61 72 65 20 61 20 43 68 |s.  You |are a Ch|
|00003d40| 72 69 73 74 69 61 6e 2c | 20 73 6f 20 79 6f 75 20 |ristian,| so you |
|00003d50| 6d 75 73 74 0a 64 69 73 | 6c 69 6b 65 20 61 74 68 |must.dis|like ath|
|00003d60| 65 69 73 74 73 2e 22 0a | 0a 54 68 69 73 20 66 61 |eists.".|.This fa|
|00003d70| 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 69 73 | 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 63 |llacy is| often c|
|00003d80| 6f 6d 6d 69 74 74 65 64 | 20 62 79 20 6d 6f 72 61 |ommitted| by mora|
|00003d90| 6c 69 73 74 73 20 61 6e | 64 20 6c 65 67 61 6c 69 |lists an|d legali|
|00003da0| 73 74 73 20 77 68 6f 20 | 74 72 79 20 74 6f 20 64 |sts who |try to d|
|00003db0| 65 63 69 64 65 0a 65 76 | 65 72 79 20 6d 6f 72 61 |ecide.ev|ery mora|
|00003dc0| 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 65 | 67 61 6c 20 71 75 65 73 |l and le|gal ques|
|00003dd0| 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 79 20 | 6d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 63 |tion by |mechanic|
|00003de0| 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 70 70 | 6c 79 69 6e 67 20 67 65 |ally app|lying ge|
|00003df0| 6e 65 72 61 6c 20 72 75 | 6c 65 73 2e 0a 0a 43 4f |neral ru|les...CO|
|00003e00| 4e 56 45 52 53 45 20 41 | 43 43 49 44 45 4e 54 20 |NVERSE A|CCIDENT |
|00003e10| 2f 20 48 41 53 54 59 20 | 47 45 4e 45 52 41 4c 49 |/ HASTY |GENERALI|
|00003e20| 5a 41 54 49 4f 4e 0a 0a | 54 68 69 73 20 66 61 6c |ZATION..|This fal|
|00003e30| 6c 61 63 79 20 69 73 20 | 74 68 65 20 72 65 76 65 |lacy is |the reve|
|00003e40| 72 73 65 20 6f 66 20 74 | 68 65 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 |rse of t|he falla|
|00003e50| 63 79 20 6f 66 20 61 63 | 63 69 64 65 6e 74 2e 20 |cy of ac|cident. |
|00003e60| 20 49 74 20 6f 63 63 75 | 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e 20 | It occu|rs when |
|00003e70| 6f 6e 65 0a 66 6f 72 6d | 73 20 61 20 67 65 6e 65 |one.form|s a gene|
|00003e80| 72 61 6c 20 72 75 6c 65 | 20 62 79 20 65 78 61 6d |ral rule| by exam|
|00003e90| 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e | 6c 79 20 61 20 66 65 77 |ining on|ly a few|
|00003ea0| 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 | 63 20 63 61 73 65 73 20 | specifi|c cases |
|00003eb0| 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 | 65 20 6e 6f 74 0a 72 65 |which ar|e not.re|
|00003ec0| 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 61 | 74 69 76 65 20 6f 66 20 |presenta|tive of |
|00003ed0| 61 6c 6c 20 70 6f 73 73 | 69 62 6c 65 20 63 61 73 |all poss|ible cas|
|00003ee0| 65 73 2e 0a 0a 46 6f 72 | 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 |es...For| example|
|00003ef0| 3a 0a 22 4a 69 6d 20 42 | 61 6b 6b 65 72 20 77 61 |:."Jim B|akker wa|
|00003f00| 73 20 61 6e 20 69 6e 73 | 69 6e 63 65 72 65 20 43 |s an ins|incere C|
|00003f10| 68 72 69 73 74 69 61 6e | 2e 20 20 54 68 65 72 65 |hristian|.  There|
|00003f20| 66 6f 72 65 20 61 6c 6c | 20 43 68 72 69 73 74 69 |fore all| Christi|
|00003f30| 61 6e 73 20 61 72 65 0a | 69 6e 73 69 6e 63 65 72 |ans are.|insincer|
|00003f40| 65 2e 22 0a 0a 53 57 45 | 45 50 49 4e 47 20 47 45 |e."..SWE|EPING GE|
|00003f50| 4e 45 52 41 4c 49 5a 41 | 54 49 4f 4e 20 2f 20 44 |NERALIZA|TION / D|
|00003f60| 49 43 54 4f 20 53 49 4d | 50 4c 49 43 49 54 45 52 |ICTO SIM|PLICITER|
|00003f70| 0a 0a 41 20 73 77 65 65 | 70 69 6e 67 20 67 65 6e |..A swee|ping gen|
|00003f80| 65 72 61 6c 69 7a 61 74 | 69 6f 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 |eralizat|ion occu|
|00003f90| 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e 20 | 61 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 |rs when |a genera|
|00003fa0| 6c 20 72 75 6c 65 20 69 | 73 20 61 70 70 6c 69 65 |l rule i|s applie|
|00003fb0| 64 20 74 6f 20 61 0a 70 | 61 72 74 69 63 75 6c 61 |d to a.p|articula|
|00003fc0| 72 20 73 69 74 75 61 74 | 69 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 77 |r situat|ion in w|
|00003fd0| 68 69 63 68 20 74 68 65 | 20 66 65 61 74 75 72 65 |hich the| feature|
|00003fe0| 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 61 | 74 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 |s of tha|t partic|
|00003ff0| 75 6c 61 72 20 73 69 74 | 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 0a 72 |ular sit|uation.r|
|00004000| 65 6e 64 65 72 20 74 68 | 65 20 72 75 6c 65 20 69 |ender th|e rule i|
|00004010| 6e 61 70 70 6c 69 63 61 | 62 6c 65 2e 20 20 41 20 |napplica|ble.  A |
|00004020| 73 77 65 65 70 69 6e 67 | 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c |sweeping| general|
|00004030| 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 | 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6f |ization |is the o|
|00004040| 70 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 | 6f 66 20 61 0a 68 61 73 |pposite |of a.has|
|00004050| 74 79 20 67 65 6e 65 72 | 61 6c 69 7a 61 74 69 6f |ty gener|alizatio|
|00004060| 6e 2e 0a 0a 4e 4f 4e 20 | 43 41 55 53 41 20 50 52 |n...NON |CAUSA PR|
|00004070| 4f 20 43 41 55 53 41 20 | 2f 20 50 4f 53 54 20 48 |O CAUSA |/ POST H|
|00004080| 4f 43 20 45 52 47 4f 20 | 50 52 4f 50 54 45 52 20 |OC ERGO |PROPTER |
|00004090| 48 4f 43 0a 0a 54 68 65 | 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6b |HOC..The|se are k|
|000040a0| 6e 6f 77 6e 20 61 73 20 | 46 61 6c 73 65 20 43 61 |nown as |False Ca|
|000040b0| 75 73 65 20 66 61 6c 6c | 61 63 69 65 73 2e 0a 0a |use fall|acies...|
|000040c0| 54 68 65 20 66 61 6c 6c | 61 63 79 20 6f 66 20 4e |The fall|acy of N|
|000040d0| 6f 6e 20 43 61 75 73 61 | 20 50 72 6f 20 43 61 75 |on Causa| Pro Cau|
|000040e0| 73 61 20 6f 63 63 75 72 | 73 20 77 68 65 6e 20 6f |sa occur|s when o|
|000040f0| 6e 65 20 69 64 65 6e 74 | 69 66 69 65 73 20 73 6f |ne ident|ifies so|
|00004100| 6d 65 74 68 69 6e 67 20 | 61 73 20 74 68 65 0a 63 |mething |as the.c|
|00004110| 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 20 | 61 6e 20 65 76 65 6e 74 |ause of |an event|
|00004120| 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 20 | 68 61 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 | but it |has not |
|00004130| 61 63 74 75 61 6c 6c 79 | 20 62 65 65 6e 20 73 68 |actually| been sh|
|00004140| 6f 77 6e 20 74 6f 20 62 | 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 |own to b|e the ca|
|00004150| 75 73 65 2e 20 20 46 6f | 72 20 0a 65 78 61 6d 70 |use.  Fo|r .examp|
|00004160| 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 49 20 | 74 6f 6f 6b 20 61 6e 20 |le:.."I |took an |
|00004170| 61 73 70 69 72 69 6e 20 | 61 6e 64 20 70 72 61 79 |aspirin |and pray|
|00004180| 65 64 20 74 6f 20 47 6f | 64 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6d |ed to Go|d, and m|
|00004190| 79 20 68 65 61 64 61 63 | 68 65 20 64 69 73 61 70 |y headac|he disap|
|000041a0| 70 65 61 72 65 64 2e 20 | 20 53 6f 20 47 6f 64 0a |peared. | So God.|
|000041b0| 63 75 72 65 64 20 6d 65 | 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 |cured me| of the |
|000041c0| 68 65 61 64 61 63 68 65 | 2e 22 0a 0a 54 68 65 20 |headache|."..The |
|000041d0| 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 | 6f 66 20 50 6f 73 74 20 |fallacy |of Post |
|000041e0| 48 6f 63 20 45 72 67 6f | 20 50 72 6f 70 74 65 72 |Hoc Ergo| Propter|
|000041f0| 20 48 6f 63 20 6f 63 63 | 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e | Hoc occ|urs when|
|00004200| 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 | 6e 67 20 69 73 20 61 73 | somethi|ng is as|
|00004210| 73 75 6d 65 64 20 74 6f | 0a 62 65 20 74 68 65 20 |sumed to|.be the |
|00004220| 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 | 20 61 6e 20 65 76 65 6e |cause of| an even|
|00004230| 74 20 6d 65 72 65 6c 79 | 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 |t merely| because|
|00004240| 20 69 74 20 68 61 70 70 | 65 6e 65 64 20 62 65 66 | it happ|ened bef|
|00004250| 6f 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 | 65 76 65 6e 74 2e 20 20 |ore the |event.  |
|00004260| 46 6f 72 20 0a 65 78 61 | 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 |For .exa|mple:.."|
|00004270| 54 68 65 20 53 6f 76 69 | 65 74 20 55 6e 69 6f 6e |The Sovi|et Union|
|00004280| 20 63 6f 6c 6c 61 70 73 | 65 64 20 61 66 74 65 72 | collaps|ed after|
|00004290| 20 74 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 | 75 70 20 61 74 68 65 69 | taking |up athei|
|000042a0| 73 6d 2e 20 20 54 68 65 | 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 77 |sm.  The|refore w|
|000042b0| 65 20 6d 75 73 74 20 61 | 76 6f 69 64 0a 61 74 68 |e must a|void.ath|
|000042c0| 65 69 73 6d 20 66 6f 72 | 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d |eism for| the sam|
|000042d0| 65 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e | 73 2e 22 0a 0a 43 55 4d |e reason|s."..CUM|
|000042e0| 20 48 4f 43 20 45 52 47 | 4f 20 50 52 4f 50 54 45 | HOC ERG|O PROPTE|
|000042f0| 52 20 48 4f 43 0a 0a 54 | 68 69 73 20 66 61 6c 6c |R HOC..T|his fall|
|00004300| 61 63 79 20 69 73 20 73 | 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 |acy is s|imilar t|
|00004310| 6f 20 70 6f 73 74 20 68 | 6f 63 20 65 72 67 6f 20 |o post h|oc ergo |
|00004320| 70 72 6f 70 74 65 72 20 | 68 6f 63 2e 20 20 49 74 |propter |hoc.  It|
|00004330| 20 61 73 73 65 72 74 73 | 20 74 68 61 74 0a 62 65 | asserts| that.be|
|00004340| 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 77 | 6f 20 65 76 65 6e 74 73 |cause tw|o events|
|00004350| 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 74 | 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 2c | occur t|ogether,|
|00004360| 20 74 68 65 79 20 6d 75 | 73 74 20 62 65 20 63 61 | they mu|st be ca|
|00004370| 75 73 61 6c 6c 79 20 72 | 65 6c 61 74 65 64 2c 20 |usally r|elated, |
|00004380| 61 6e 64 20 6c 65 61 76 | 65 73 0a 6e 6f 20 72 6f |and leav|es.no ro|
|00004390| 6f 6d 20 66 6f 72 20 6f | 74 68 65 72 20 66 61 63 |om for o|ther fac|
|000043a0| 74 6f 72 73 20 74 68 61 | 74 20 6d 61 79 20 62 65 |tors tha|t may be|
|000043b0| 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 75 | 73 65 28 73 29 20 6f 66 | the cau|se(s) of|
|000043c0| 20 74 68 65 20 65 76 65 | 6e 74 73 2e 0a 0a 50 45 | the eve|nts...PE|
|000043d0| 54 49 54 49 4f 20 50 52 | 49 4e 43 49 50 49 49 20 |TITIO PR|INCIPII |
|000043e0| 2f 20 42 45 47 47 49 4e | 47 20 54 48 45 20 51 55 |/ BEGGIN|G THE QU|
|000043f0| 45 53 54 49 4f 4e 0a 0a | 54 68 69 73 20 66 61 6c |ESTION..|This fal|
|00004400| 6c 61 63 79 20 6f 63 63 | 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e |lacy occ|urs when|
|00004410| 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 | 6d 69 73 65 73 20 61 72 | the pre|mises ar|
|00004420| 65 20 61 74 20 6c 65 61 | 73 74 20 61 73 20 71 75 |e at lea|st as qu|
|00004430| 65 73 74 69 6f 6e 61 62 | 6c 65 20 61 73 20 74 68 |estionab|le as th|
|00004440| 65 0a 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 | 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 |e.conclu|sion rea|
|00004450| 63 68 65 64 2e 0a 0a 43 | 49 52 43 55 4c 55 53 20 |ched...C|IRCULUS |
|00004460| 49 4e 20 44 45 4d 4f 4e | 53 54 52 41 4e 44 4f 0a |IN DEMON|STRANDO.|
|00004470| 0a 54 68 69 73 20 66 61 | 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 6f 63 |.This fa|llacy oc|
|00004480| 63 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 | 6e 20 6f 6e 65 20 61 73 |curs whe|n one as|
|00004490| 73 75 6d 65 73 20 61 73 | 20 61 20 70 72 65 6d 69 |sumes as| a premi|
|000044a0| 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 | 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f |se the c|onclusio|
|000044b0| 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 | 6f 6e 65 0a 77 69 73 68 |n which |one.wish|
|000044c0| 65 73 20 74 6f 20 72 65 | 61 63 68 2e 20 20 4f 66 |es to re|ach.  Of|
|000044d0| 74 65 6e 2c 20 74 68 65 | 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 69 |ten, the| proposi|
|000044e0| 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 6c | 6c 20 62 65 20 72 65 70 |tion wil|l be rep|
|000044f0| 68 72 61 73 65 64 20 73 | 6f 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 |hrased s|o that t|
|00004500| 68 65 0a 66 61 6c 6c 61 | 63 79 20 61 70 70 65 61 |he.falla|cy appea|
|00004510| 72 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 | 20 61 20 76 61 6c 69 64 |rs to be| a valid|
|00004520| 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e | 74 2e 20 20 46 6f 72 20 | argumen|t.  For |
|00004530| 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a | 0a 0a 22 48 6f 6d 6f 73 |example:|.."Homos|
|00004540| 65 78 75 61 6c 73 20 6d | 75 73 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 |exuals m|ust not |
|00004550| 62 65 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 | 65 64 20 74 6f 20 68 6f |be allow|ed to ho|
|00004560| 6c 64 20 67 6f 76 65 72 | 6e 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 |ld gover|nment of|
|00004570| 66 69 63 65 2e 20 20 48 | 65 6e 63 65 20 61 6e 79 |fice.  H|ence any|
|00004580| 0a 67 6f 76 65 72 6e 6d | 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 66 69 |.governm|ent offi|
|00004590| 63 69 61 6c 20 77 68 6f | 20 69 73 20 72 65 76 65 |cial who| is reve|
|000045a0| 61 6c 65 64 20 74 6f 20 | 62 65 20 61 20 68 6f 6d |aled to |be a hom|
|000045b0| 6f 73 65 78 75 61 6c 20 | 77 69 6c 6c 20 6c 6f 73 |osexual |will los|
|000045c0| 65 20 68 69 73 20 6a 6f | 62 2e 20 0a 54 68 65 72 |e his jo|b. .Ther|
|000045d0| 65 66 6f 72 65 20 68 6f | 6d 6f 73 65 78 75 61 6c |efore ho|mosexual|
|000045e0| 73 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 64 | 6f 20 61 6e 79 74 68 69 |s will d|o anythi|
|000045f0| 6e 67 20 74 6f 20 68 69 | 64 65 20 74 68 65 69 72 |ng to hi|de their|
|00004600| 20 73 65 63 72 65 74 2c | 20 61 6e 64 20 77 69 6c | secret,| and wil|
|00004610| 6c 20 62 65 20 6f 70 65 | 6e 0a 74 6f 20 62 6c 61 |l be ope|n.to bla|
|00004620| 63 6b 6d 61 69 6c 2e 20 | 20 54 68 65 72 65 66 6f |ckmail. | Therefo|
|00004630| 72 65 20 68 6f 6d 6f 73 | 65 78 75 61 6c 73 20 63 |re homos|exuals c|
|00004640| 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 | 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 65 64 |annot be| allowed|
|00004650| 20 74 6f 20 68 6f 6c 64 | 20 67 6f 76 65 72 6e 6d | to hold| governm|
|00004660| 65 6e 74 0a 6f 66 66 69 | 63 65 2e 22 0a 0a 4e 6f |ent.offi|ce."..No|
|00004670| 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 | 74 68 65 20 61 72 67 75 |te that |the argu|
|00004680| 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 73 20 | 65 6e 74 69 72 65 6c 79 |ment is |entirely|
|00004690| 20 63 69 72 63 75 6c 61 | 72 3b 20 74 68 65 20 70 | circula|r; the p|
|000046a0| 72 65 6d 69 73 65 20 69 | 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 |remise i|s the sa|
|000046b0| 6d 65 20 61 73 20 74 68 | 65 20 0a 63 6f 6e 63 6c |me as th|e .concl|
|000046c0| 75 73 69 6f 6e 2e 20 20 | 41 6e 20 61 72 67 75 6d |usion.  |An argum|
|000046d0| 65 6e 74 20 6c 69 6b 65 | 20 74 68 65 20 61 62 6f |ent like| the abo|
|000046e0| 76 65 20 68 61 73 20 61 | 63 74 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 |ve has a|ctually |
|000046f0| 62 65 65 6e 20 63 69 74 | 65 64 20 61 73 20 74 68 |been cit|ed as th|
|00004700| 65 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e | 0a 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 |e reason|.for the|
|00004710| 20 42 72 69 74 69 73 68 | 20 53 65 63 72 65 74 20 | British| Secret |
|00004720| 53 65 72 76 69 63 65 73 | 27 20 6f 66 66 69 63 69 |Services|' offici|
|00004730| 61 6c 20 62 61 6e 20 6f | 6e 20 68 6f 6d 6f 73 65 |al ban o|n homose|
|00004740| 78 75 61 6c 20 65 6d 70 | 6c 6f 79 65 65 73 2e 20 |xual emp|loyees. |
|00004750| 0a 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 | 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 |.Another| example|
|00004760| 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 | 63 6c 61 73 73 69 63 3a | is the |classic:|
|00004770| 0a 0a 22 57 65 20 6b 6e | 6f 77 20 74 68 61 74 20 |.."We kn|ow that |
|00004780| 47 6f 64 20 65 78 69 73 | 74 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 |God exis|ts becau|
|00004790| 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 42 | 69 62 6c 65 20 74 65 6c |se the B|ible tel|
|000047a0| 6c 73 20 75 73 20 73 6f | 2e 20 20 41 6e 64 20 77 |ls us so|.  And w|
|000047b0| 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 20 74 | 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 0a |e know t|hat the.|
|000047c0| 42 69 62 6c 65 20 69 73 | 20 74 72 75 65 20 62 65 |Bible is| true be|
|000047d0| 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 | 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 |cause it| is the |
|000047e0| 77 6f 72 64 20 6f 66 20 | 47 6f 64 2e 22 0a 0a 43 |word of |God."..C|
|000047f0| 4f 4d 50 4c 45 58 20 51 | 55 45 53 54 49 4f 4e 20 |OMPLEX Q|UESTION |
|00004800| 2f 20 46 41 4c 4c 41 43 | 59 20 4f 46 20 49 4e 54 |/ FALLAC|Y OF INT|
|00004810| 45 52 52 4f 47 41 54 49 | 4f 4e 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 |ERROGATI|ON..This|
|00004820| 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 | 46 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 | is the |Fallacy |
|00004830| 6f 66 20 50 72 65 73 75 | 70 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f |of Presu|ppositio|
|00004840| 6e 2e 20 20 4f 6e 65 20 | 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 |n.  One |example |
|00004850| 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 | 6c 61 73 73 69 63 20 6c |is the c|lassic l|
|00004860| 6f 61 64 65 64 20 0a 71 | 75 65 73 74 69 6f 6e 3a |oaded .q|uestion:|
|00004870| 0a 0a 22 48 61 76 65 20 | 79 6f 75 20 73 74 6f 70 |.."Have |you stop|
|00004880| 70 65 64 20 62 65 61 74 | 69 6e 67 20 79 6f 75 72 |ped beat|ing your|
|00004890| 20 77 69 66 65 3f 22 0a | 0a 54 68 65 20 71 75 65 | wife?".|.The que|
|000048a0| 73 74 69 6f 6e 20 70 72 | 65 73 75 70 70 6f 73 65 |stion pr|esuppose|
|000048b0| 73 20 61 20 64 65 66 69 | 6e 69 74 65 20 61 6e 73 |s a defi|nite ans|
|000048c0| 77 65 72 20 74 6f 20 61 | 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 71 |wer to a|nother q|
|000048d0| 75 65 73 74 69 6f 6e 20 | 77 68 69 63 68 20 68 61 |uestion |which ha|
|000048e0| 73 20 6e 6f 74 0a 65 76 | 65 6e 20 62 65 65 6e 20 |s not.ev|en been |
|000048f0| 61 73 6b 65 64 2e 20 20 | 54 68 69 73 20 74 72 69 |asked.  |This tri|
|00004900| 63 6b 20 69 73 20 6f 66 | 74 65 6e 20 75 73 65 64 |ck is of|ten used|
|00004910| 20 62 79 20 6c 61 77 79 | 65 72 73 20 69 6e 20 63 | by lawy|ers in c|
|00004920| 72 6f 73 73 2d 65 78 61 | 6d 69 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e |ross-exa|mination|
|00004930| 2c 0a 77 68 65 6e 20 74 | 68 65 79 20 61 73 6b 20 |,.when t|hey ask |
|00004940| 71 75 65 73 74 69 6f 6e | 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 3a 0a |question|s like:.|
|00004950| 0a 22 57 68 65 72 65 20 | 64 69 64 20 79 6f 75 20 |."Where |did you |
|00004960| 68 69 64 65 20 74 68 65 | 20 6d 6f 6e 65 79 20 79 |hide the| money y|
|00004970| 6f 75 20 73 74 6f 6c 65 | 3f 22 0a 0a 53 69 6d 69 |ou stole|?"..Simi|
|00004980| 6c 61 72 6c 79 2c 20 70 | 6f 6c 69 74 69 63 69 61 |larly, p|oliticia|
|00004990| 6e 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e | 20 61 73 6b 20 6c 6f 61 |ns often| ask loa|
|000049a0| 64 65 64 20 71 75 65 73 | 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 75 |ded ques|tions su|
|000049b0| 63 68 20 61 73 3a 0a 0a | 22 48 6f 77 20 6c 6f 6e |ch as:..|"How lon|
|000049c0| 67 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 74 | 68 69 73 20 45 43 20 69 |g will t|his EC i|
|000049d0| 6e 74 65 72 66 65 72 65 | 6e 63 65 20 69 6e 20 6f |nterfere|nce in o|
|000049e0| 75 72 20 61 66 66 61 69 | 72 73 20 62 65 20 61 6c |ur affai|rs be al|
|000049f0| 6c 6f 77 65 64 20 74 6f | 20 63 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 |lowed to| continu|
|00004a00| 65 3f 22 0a 6f 72 0a 22 | 44 6f 65 73 20 74 68 65 |e?".or."|Does the|
|00004a10| 20 43 68 61 6e 63 65 6c | 6c 6f 72 20 70 6c 61 6e | Chancel|lor plan|
|00004a20| 20 74 77 6f 20 6d 6f 72 | 65 20 79 65 61 72 73 20 | two mor|e years |
|00004a30| 6f 66 20 72 75 69 6e 6f | 75 73 20 70 72 69 76 61 |of ruino|us priva|
|00004a40| 74 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e | 3f 22 0a 0a 49 47 4e 4f |tization|?"..IGNO|
|00004a50| 52 41 54 49 4f 20 45 4c | 45 4e 43 48 49 0a 0a 54 |RATIO EL|ENCHI..T|
|00004a60| 68 65 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 | 63 79 20 6f 66 20 49 72 |he falla|cy of Ir|
|00004a70| 72 65 6c 65 76 61 6e 74 | 20 43 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 |relevant| Conclus|
|00004a80| 69 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 73 | 69 73 74 73 20 6f 66 20 |ion cons|ists of |
|00004a90| 63 6c 61 69 6d 69 6e 67 | 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 6e |claiming| that an|
|00004aa0| 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e | 74 20 0a 73 75 70 70 6f | argumen|t .suppo|
|00004ab0| 72 74 73 20 61 20 70 61 | 72 74 69 63 75 6c 61 72 |rts a pa|rticular|
|00004ac0| 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 | 69 6f 6e 20 77 68 65 6e | conclus|ion when|
|00004ad0| 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 61 | 63 74 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 | it is a|ctually |
|00004ae0| 6c 6f 67 69 63 61 6c 6c | 79 20 6e 6f 74 68 69 6e |logicall|y nothin|
|00004af0| 67 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 0a | 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 61 |g to do.|with tha|
|00004b00| 74 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 | 73 69 6f 6e 2e 0a 0a 46 |t conclu|sion...F|
|00004b10| 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 | 6c 65 2c 20 61 20 43 68 |or examp|le, a Ch|
|00004b20| 72 69 73 74 69 61 6e 20 | 6d 61 79 20 62 65 67 69 |ristian |may begi|
|00004b30| 6e 20 62 79 20 73 61 79 | 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 |n by say|ing that|
|00004b40| 20 68 65 20 77 69 6c 6c | 20 61 72 67 75 65 20 74 | he will| argue t|
|00004b50| 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 0a | 74 65 61 63 68 69 6e 67 |hat the.|teaching|
|00004b60| 73 20 6f 66 20 43 68 72 | 69 73 74 69 61 6e 69 74 |s of Chr|istianit|
|00004b70| 79 20 61 72 65 20 75 6e | 64 6f 75 62 74 61 62 6c |y are un|doubtabl|
|00004b80| 79 20 74 72 75 65 2e 20 | 20 49 66 20 68 65 20 74 |y true. | If he t|
|00004b90| 68 65 6e 20 61 72 67 75 | 65 73 20 61 74 20 6c 65 |hen argu|es at le|
|00004ba0| 6e 67 74 68 0a 74 68 61 | 74 20 43 68 72 69 73 74 |ngth.tha|t Christ|
|00004bb0| 69 61 6e 69 74 79 20 69 | 73 20 6f 66 20 67 72 65 |ianity i|s of gre|
|00004bc0| 61 74 20 68 65 6c 70 20 | 74 6f 20 6d 61 6e 79 20 |at help |to many |
|00004bd0| 70 65 6f 70 6c 65 2c 20 | 6e 6f 20 6d 61 74 74 65 |people, |no matte|
|00004be0| 72 20 68 6f 77 20 77 65 | 6c 6c 20 68 65 0a 61 72 |r how we|ll he.ar|
|00004bf0| 67 75 65 73 20 68 65 20 | 77 69 6c 6c 20 6e 6f 74 |gues he |will not|
|00004c00| 20 68 61 76 65 20 73 68 | 6f 77 6e 20 74 68 61 74 | have sh|own that|
|00004c10| 20 43 68 72 69 73 74 69 | 61 6e 20 74 65 61 63 68 | Christi|an teach|
|00004c20| 69 6e 67 73 20 61 72 65 | 20 74 72 75 65 2e 0a 0a |ings are| true...|
|00004c30| 53 61 64 6c 79 2c 20 73 | 75 63 68 20 66 61 6c 6c |Sadly, s|uch fall|
|00004c40| 61 63 69 6f 75 73 20 61 | 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 73 |acious a|rguments|
|00004c50| 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 | 65 6e 20 73 75 63 63 65 | are oft|en succe|
|00004c60| 73 73 66 75 6c 20 62 65 | 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 |ssful be|cause th|
|00004c70| 65 79 20 61 72 6f 75 73 | 65 0a 65 6d 6f 74 69 6f |ey arous|e.emotio|
|00004c80| 6e 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 | 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f |ns which| cause o|
|00004c90| 74 68 65 72 73 20 74 6f | 20 76 69 65 77 20 74 68 |thers to| view th|
|00004ca0| 65 20 73 75 70 70 6f 73 | 65 64 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c |e suppos|ed concl|
|00004cb0| 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 6e | 20 61 20 6d 6f 72 65 0a |usion in| a more.|
|00004cc0| 66 61 76 6f 75 72 61 62 | 6c 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 |favourab|le light|
|00004cd0| 2e 0a 0a 45 51 55 49 56 | 4f 43 41 54 49 4f 4e 0a |...EQUIV|OCATION.|
|00004ce0| 0a 45 71 75 69 76 6f 63 | 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 63 |.Equivoc|ation oc|
|00004cf0| 63 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 | 6e 20 61 20 6b 65 79 20 |curs whe|n a key |
|00004d00| 77 6f 72 64 20 69 73 20 | 75 73 65 64 20 77 69 74 |word is |used wit|
|00004d10| 68 20 74 77 6f 20 6f 72 | 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 64 69 |h two or| more di|
|00004d20| 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 0a | 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 73 |fferent.|meanings|
|00004d30| 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 | 73 61 6d 65 20 61 72 67 | in the |same arg|
|00004d40| 75 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 20 | 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d |ument.  |For exam|
|00004d50| 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 57 | 68 61 74 20 63 6f 75 6c |ple:.."W|hat coul|
|00004d60| 64 20 62 65 20 6d 6f 72 | 65 20 61 66 66 6f 72 64 |d be mor|e afford|
|00004d70| 61 62 6c 65 20 74 68 61 | 6e 20 66 72 65 65 20 73 |able tha|n free s|
|00004d80| 6f 66 74 77 61 72 65 3f | 20 20 42 75 74 20 74 6f |oftware?|  But to|
|00004d90| 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 73 75 | 72 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 | make su|re that |
|00004da0| 69 74 0a 72 65 6d 61 69 | 6e 73 20 66 72 65 65 2c |it.remai|ns free,|
|00004db0| 20 74 68 61 74 20 75 73 | 65 72 73 20 63 61 6e 20 | that us|ers can |
|00004dc0| 64 6f 20 77 68 61 74 20 | 74 68 65 79 20 6c 69 6b |do what |they lik|
|00004dd0| 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 69 | 74 2c 20 77 65 20 6d 75 |e with i|t, we mu|
|00004de0| 73 74 20 70 6c 61 63 65 | 20 61 0a 6c 69 63 65 6e |st place| a.licen|
|00004df0| 73 65 20 6f 6e 20 69 74 | 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 |se on it| to make|
|00004e00| 20 73 75 72 65 20 74 68 | 61 74 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 | sure th|at will |
|00004e10| 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 62 | 65 20 66 72 65 65 6c 79 |always b|e freely|
|00004e20| 20 72 65 64 69 73 74 72 | 69 62 75 74 61 62 6c 65 | redistr|ibutable|
|00004e30| 2e 22 0a 0a 41 4d 50 48 | 49 42 4f 4c 59 0a 0a 41 |."..AMPH|IBOLY..A|
|00004e40| 6d 70 68 69 62 6f 6c 79 | 20 6f 63 63 75 72 73 20 |mphiboly| occurs |
|00004e50| 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 | 20 70 72 65 6d 69 73 65 |when the| premise|
|00004e60| 73 20 75 73 65 64 20 69 | 6e 20 61 6e 20 61 72 67 |s used i|n an arg|
|00004e70| 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 72 | 65 20 61 6d 62 69 67 75 |ument ar|e ambigu|
|00004e80| 6f 75 73 20 62 65 63 61 | 75 73 65 0a 6f 66 20 63 |ous beca|use.of c|
|00004e90| 61 72 65 6c 65 73 73 20 | 6f 72 20 75 6e 67 72 61 |areless |or ungra|
|00004ea0| 6d 6d 61 74 69 63 61 6c | 20 70 68 72 61 73 69 6e |mmatical| phrasin|
|00004eb0| 67 2e 0a 0a 41 43 43 45 | 4e 54 0a 0a 41 63 63 65 |g...ACCE|NT..Acce|
|00004ec0| 6e 74 20 69 73 20 61 6e | 6f 74 68 65 72 20 66 6f |nt is an|other fo|
|00004ed0| 72 6d 20 6f 66 20 66 61 | 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 74 68 |rm of fa|llacy th|
|00004ee0| 72 6f 75 67 68 20 73 68 | 69 66 74 69 6e 67 20 6d |rough sh|ifting m|
|00004ef0| 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 2e 20 | 20 49 6e 20 74 68 69 73 |eaning. | In this|
|00004f00| 20 63 61 73 65 2c 0a 74 | 68 65 20 6d 65 61 6e 69 | case,.t|he meani|
|00004f10| 6e 67 20 69 73 20 63 68 | 61 6e 67 65 64 20 62 79 |ng is ch|anged by|
|00004f20| 20 61 6c 74 65 72 69 6e | 67 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 | alterin|g which |
|00004f30| 70 61 72 74 73 20 6f 66 | 20 61 20 73 74 61 74 65 |parts of| a state|
|00004f40| 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 72 65 | 0a 65 6d 70 68 61 73 69 |ment are|.emphasi|
|00004f50| 7a 65 64 2e 20 20 46 6f | 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c |zed.  Fo|r exampl|
|00004f60| 65 2c 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 | 64 65 72 3a 0a 0a 22 57 |e, consi|der:.."W|
|00004f70| 65 20 73 68 6f 75 6c 64 | 20 6e 6f 74 20 73 70 65 |e should| not spe|
|00004f80| 61 6b 20 49 4c 4c 20 6f | 66 20 6f 75 72 20 66 72 |ak ILL o|f our fr|
|00004f90| 69 65 6e 64 73 22 0a 61 | 6e 64 0a 22 57 65 20 73 |iends".a|nd."We s|
|00004fa0| 68 6f 75 6c 64 20 6e 6f | 74 20 73 70 65 61 6b 20 |hould no|t speak |
|00004fb0| 69 6c 6c 20 6f 66 20 6f | 75 72 20 46 52 49 45 4e |ill of o|ur FRIEN|
|00004fc0| 44 53 22 0a 0a 46 41 4c | 4c 41 43 49 45 53 20 4f |DS"..FAL|LACIES O|
|00004fd0| 46 20 43 4f 4d 50 4f 53 | 49 54 49 4f 4e 0a 0a 4f |F COMPOS|ITION..O|
|00004fe0| 6e 65 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 | 63 79 20 6f 66 20 63 6f |ne falla|cy of co|
|00004ff0| 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f | 6e 20 69 73 20 74 6f 20 |mpositio|n is to |
|00005000| 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 | 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 20 |conclude| that a |
|00005010| 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 79 | 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 |property| shared |
|00005020| 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 70 | 61 72 74 73 0a 6f 66 20 |by the p|arts.of |
|00005030| 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 6e | 67 20 6d 75 73 74 20 61 |somethin|g must a|
|00005040| 70 70 6c 79 20 74 6f 20 | 74 68 65 20 77 68 6f 6c |pply to |the whol|
|00005050| 65 2e 20 20 46 6f 72 20 | 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a |e.  For |example:|
|00005060| 0a 0a 22 54 68 65 20 62 | 69 63 79 63 6c 65 20 69 |.."The b|icycle i|
|00005070| 73 20 6d 61 64 65 20 65 | 6e 74 69 72 65 6c 79 20 |s made e|ntirely |
|00005080| 6f 66 20 6c 6f 77 20 6d | 61 73 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 |of low m|ass comp|
|00005090| 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 2c 20 | 61 6e 64 20 69 73 20 74 |onents, |and is t|
|000050a0| 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 | 20 76 65 72 79 20 0a 6c |herefore| very .l|
|000050b0| 69 67 68 74 77 65 69 67 | 68 74 2e 22 0a 0a 54 68 |ightweig|ht."..Th|
|000050c0| 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 | 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 |e other |fallacy |
|000050d0| 6f 66 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f | 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 |of compo|sition i|
|000050e0| 73 20 74 6f 20 63 6f 6e | 63 6c 75 64 65 20 74 68 |s to con|clude th|
|000050f0| 61 74 20 61 20 70 72 6f | 70 65 72 74 79 20 6f 66 |at a pro|perty of|
|00005100| 20 61 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 | 72 0a 6f 66 20 69 6e 64 | a numbe|r.of ind|
|00005110| 69 76 69 64 75 61 6c 20 | 69 74 65 6d 73 20 69 73 |ividual |items is|
|00005120| 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 | 62 79 20 61 20 63 6f 6c | shared |by a col|
|00005130| 6c 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 | 6f 66 20 74 68 6f 73 65 |lection |of those|
|00005140| 20 69 74 65 6d 73 2e 20 | 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 | items. | For exa|
|00005150| 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 | 41 20 63 61 72 20 75 73 |mple:.."|A car us|
|00005160| 65 73 20 6c 65 73 73 20 | 70 65 74 72 6f 6c 20 61 |es less |petrol a|
|00005170| 6e 64 20 63 61 75 73 65 | 73 20 6c 65 73 73 20 70 |nd cause|s less p|
|00005180| 6f 6c 6c 75 74 69 6f 6e | 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 |ollution| than a |
|00005190| 62 75 73 2e 20 20 54 68 | 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 |bus.  Th|erefore |
|000051a0| 63 61 72 73 0a 61 72 65 | 20 6c 65 73 73 20 65 6e |cars.are| less en|
|000051b0| 76 69 72 6f 6e 6d 65 6e | 74 61 6c 6c 79 20 64 61 |vironmen|tally da|
|000051c0| 6d 61 67 69 6e 67 20 74 | 68 61 6e 20 62 75 73 65 |maging t|han buse|
|000051d0| 73 2e 22 0a 0a 46 41 4c | 4c 41 43 59 20 4f 46 20 |s."..FAL|LACY OF |
|000051e0| 44 49 56 49 53 49 4f 4e | 0a 0a 54 68 65 20 66 61 |DIVISION|..The fa|
|000051f0| 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 6f 66 | 20 64 69 76 69 73 69 6f |llacy of| divisio|
|00005200| 6e 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 | 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 69 74 |n is the| opposit|
|00005210| 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 | 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 |e of the| fallacy|
|00005220| 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6d 70 | 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 2e | of comp|osition.|
|00005230| 20 20 4c 69 6b 65 0a 69 | 74 73 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 |  Like.i|ts oppos|
|00005240| 69 74 65 2c 20 69 74 20 | 65 78 69 73 74 73 20 69 |ite, it |exists i|
|00005250| 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 76 61 | 72 69 65 74 69 65 73 2e |n two va|rieties.|
|00005260| 20 20 54 68 65 20 66 69 | 72 73 74 20 69 73 20 74 |  The fi|rst is t|
|00005270| 6f 20 61 73 73 75 6d 65 | 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 0a |o assume| that a.|
|00005280| 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 79 | 20 6f 66 20 73 6f 6d 65 |property| of some|
|00005290| 20 74 68 69 6e 67 20 6d | 75 73 74 20 61 70 70 6c | thing m|ust appl|
|000052a0| 79 20 74 6f 20 69 74 73 | 20 70 61 72 74 73 2e 20 |y to its| parts. |
|000052b0| 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 | 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a 0a 22 | For exa|mple:.."|
|000052c0| 59 6f 75 20 61 72 65 20 | 73 74 75 64 79 69 6e 67 |You are |studying|
|000052d0| 20 61 74 20 61 20 72 69 | 63 68 20 63 6f 6c 6c 65 | at a ri|ch colle|
|000052e0| 67 65 2e 20 20 54 68 65 | 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 79 |ge.  The|refore y|
|000052f0| 6f 75 20 6d 75 73 74 20 | 62 65 20 72 69 63 68 2e |ou must |be rich.|
|00005300| 22 0a 0a 54 68 65 20 6f | 74 68 65 72 20 69 73 20 |"..The o|ther is |
|00005310| 74 6f 20 61 73 73 75 6d | 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 |to assum|e that a|
|00005320| 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 | 79 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 | propert|y of a c|
|00005330| 6f 6c 6c 65 63 74 69 6f | 6e 20 6f 66 20 69 74 65 |ollectio|n of ite|
|00005340| 6d 73 20 69 73 20 73 68 | 61 72 65 64 20 62 79 0a |ms is sh|ared by.|
|00005350| 65 61 63 68 20 69 74 65 | 6d 2e 20 20 46 6f 72 20 |each ite|m.  For |
|00005360| 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a | 0a 0a 22 41 6e 74 73 20 |example:|.."Ants |
|00005370| 63 61 6e 20 64 65 73 74 | 72 6f 79 20 61 20 74 72 |can dest|roy a tr|
|00005380| 65 65 2e 20 20 54 68 65 | 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 74 |ee.  The|refore t|
|00005390| 68 69 73 20 61 6e 74 20 | 63 61 6e 20 64 65 73 74 |his ant |can dest|
|000053a0| 72 6f 79 20 61 20 74 72 | 65 65 2e 22 0a 0a 54 48 |roy a tr|ee."..TH|
|000053b0| 45 20 53 4c 49 50 50 45 | 52 59 20 53 4c 4f 50 45 |E SLIPPE|RY SLOPE|
|000053c0| 20 41 52 47 55 4d 45 4e | 54 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 20 | ARGUMEN|T..This |
|000053d0| 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 | 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 |argument| states |
|000053e0| 74 68 61 74 20 73 68 6f | 75 6c 64 20 6f 6e 65 20 |that sho|uld one |
|000053f0| 65 76 65 6e 74 20 6f 63 | 63 75 72 2c 20 73 6f 20 |event oc|cur, so |
|00005400| 77 69 6c 6c 20 6f 74 68 | 65 72 20 68 61 72 6d 66 |will oth|er harmf|
|00005410| 75 6c 0a 65 76 65 6e 74 | 73 2e 20 20 54 68 65 72 |ul.event|s.  Ther|
|00005420| 65 20 69 73 20 6e 6f 20 | 70 72 6f 6f 66 20 6d 61 |e is no |proof ma|
|00005430| 64 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 | 74 68 65 20 68 61 72 6d |de that |the harm|
|00005440| 66 75 6c 20 65 76 65 6e | 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 |ful even|ts are c|
|00005450| 61 75 73 65 64 20 62 79 | 20 74 68 65 0a 66 69 72 |aused by| the.fir|
|00005460| 73 74 20 65 76 65 6e 74 | 2e 0a 0a 46 6f 72 20 65 |st event|...For e|
|00005470| 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 3a 0a | 22 49 66 20 77 65 20 6c |xample:.|"If we l|
|00005480| 65 67 61 6c 69 7a 65 20 | 6d 61 72 69 6a 75 61 6e |egalize |marijuan|
|00005490| 61 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 | 77 65 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 |a, then |we would|
|000054a0| 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 6f | 20 6c 65 67 61 6c 69 7a | have to| legaliz|
|000054b0| 65 20 63 72 61 63 6b 20 | 61 6e 64 20 68 65 72 6f |e crack |and hero|
|000054c0| 69 6e 0a 61 6e 64 20 77 | 65 27 6c 6c 20 68 61 76 |in.and w|e'll hav|
|000054d0| 65 20 61 20 6e 61 74 69 | 6f 6e 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 |e a nati|on full |
|000054e0| 6f 66 20 64 72 75 67 2d | 61 64 64 69 63 74 73 20 |of drug-|addicts |
|000054f0| 6f 6e 20 77 65 6c 66 61 | 72 65 2e 20 20 54 68 65 |on welfa|re.  The|
|00005500| 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 77 | 65 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 |refore w|e cannot|
|00005510| 0a 6c 65 67 61 6c 69 7a | 65 20 6d 61 72 69 6a 75 |.legaliz|e mariju|
|00005520| 61 6e 61 2e 22 0a 0a 22 | 41 20 49 53 20 42 41 53 |ana.".."|A IS BAS|
|00005530| 45 44 20 4f 4e 20 42 22 | 20 46 41 4c 4c 41 43 49 |ED ON B"| FALLACI|
|00005540| 45 53 20 2f 20 22 49 53 | 20 41 20 54 59 50 45 20 |ES / "IS| A TYPE |
|00005550| 4f 46 22 20 46 41 4c 4c | 41 43 49 45 53 0a 0a 54 |OF" FALL|ACIES..T|
|00005560| 68 65 73 65 20 66 61 6c | 6c 61 63 69 65 73 20 6f |hese fal|lacies o|
|00005570| 63 63 75 72 20 77 68 65 | 6e 20 6f 6e 65 20 61 74 |ccur whe|n one at|
|00005580| 74 65 6d 70 74 73 20 74 | 6f 20 61 72 67 75 65 20 |tempts t|o argue |
|00005590| 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 | 6e 67 73 20 61 72 65 20 |that thi|ngs are |
|000055a0| 69 6e 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 | 77 61 79 0a 73 69 6d 69 |in some |way.simi|
|000055b0| 6c 61 72 20 77 69 74 68 | 6f 75 74 20 61 63 74 75 |lar with|out actu|
|000055c0| 61 6c 6c 79 20 73 70 65 | 63 69 66 79 69 6e 67 20 |ally spe|cifying |
|000055d0| 69 6e 20 77 68 61 74 20 | 77 61 79 20 74 68 65 79 |in what |way they|
|000055e0| 20 61 72 65 20 73 69 6d | 69 6c 61 72 2e 0a 0a 45 | are sim|ilar...E|
|000055f0| 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 73 3a | 0a 22 49 73 6e 27 74 20 |xamples:|."Isn't |
|00005600| 68 69 73 74 6f 72 79 20 | 62 61 73 65 64 20 75 70 |history |based up|
|00005610| 6f 6e 20 66 61 69 74 68 | 3f 20 20 49 66 20 73 6f |on faith|?  If so|
|00005620| 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 69 | 73 6e 27 74 20 74 68 65 |, then i|sn't the|
|00005630| 20 42 69 62 6c 65 20 61 | 6c 73 6f 20 61 20 66 6f | Bible a|lso a fo|
|00005640| 72 6d 20 6f 66 0a 68 69 | 73 74 6f 72 79 3f 22 0a |rm of.hi|story?".|
|00005650| 0a 22 49 73 6c 61 6d 20 | 69 73 20 62 61 73 65 64 |."Islam |is based|
|00005660| 20 6f 6e 20 66 61 69 74 | 68 2c 20 43 68 72 69 73 | on fait|h, Chris|
|00005670| 74 69 61 6e 69 74 79 20 | 69 73 20 62 61 73 65 64 |tianity |is based|
|00005680| 20 6f 6e 20 66 61 69 74 | 68 2c 20 73 6f 20 69 73 | on fait|h, so is|
|00005690| 6e 27 74 20 49 73 6c 61 | 6d 20 61 0a 66 6f 72 6d |n't Isla|m a.form|
|000056a0| 20 6f 66 20 43 68 72 69 | 73 74 69 61 6e 69 74 79 | of Chri|stianity|
|000056b0| 3f 22 0a 0a 22 43 61 74 | 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 |?".."Cat|s are a |
|000056c0| 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 66 20 | 61 6e 69 6d 61 6c 20 62 |form of |animal b|
|000056d0| 61 73 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 | 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 63 |ased on |carbon c|
|000056e0| 68 65 6d 69 73 74 72 79 | 2c 20 64 6f 67 73 20 61 |hemistry|, dogs a|
|000056f0| 72 65 20 61 20 66 6f 72 | 6d 20 6f 66 0a 61 6e 69 |re a for|m of.ani|
|00005700| 6d 61 6c 20 62 61 73 65 | 64 20 6f 6e 20 63 61 72 |mal base|d on car|
|00005710| 62 6f 6e 20 63 68 65 6d | 69 73 74 72 79 2c 20 73 |bon chem|istry, s|
|00005720| 6f 20 61 72 65 6e 27 74 | 20 64 6f 67 73 20 61 20 |o aren't| dogs a |
|00005730| 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 66 20 | 63 61 74 3f 22 0a 0a 41 |form of |cat?"..A|
|00005740| 46 46 49 52 4d 41 54 49 | 4f 4e 20 4f 46 20 54 48 |FFIRMATI|ON OF TH|
|00005750| 45 20 43 4f 4e 53 45 51 | 55 45 4e 54 0a 0a 54 68 |E CONSEQ|UENT..Th|
|00005760| 69 73 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 | 63 79 20 69 73 20 61 6e |is falla|cy is an|
|00005770| 20 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e | 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 | argumen|t of the|
|00005780| 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 22 41 | 20 69 6d 70 6c 69 65 73 | form "A| implies|
|00005790| 20 42 2c 20 42 20 69 73 | 20 74 72 75 65 2c 20 74 | B, B is| true, t|
|000057a0| 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 | 20 41 0a 69 73 20 74 72 |herefore| A.is tr|
|000057b0| 75 65 22 2e 20 20 54 6f | 20 75 6e 64 65 72 73 74 |ue".  To| underst|
|000057c0| 61 6e 64 20 77 68 79 20 | 69 74 20 69 73 20 61 20 |and why |it is a |
|000057d0| 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 2c | 20 65 78 61 6d 69 6e 65 |fallacy,| examine|
|000057e0| 20 74 68 65 20 74 72 75 | 74 68 20 74 61 62 6c 65 | the tru|th table|
|000057f0| 20 66 6f 72 0a 69 6d 70 | 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e | for.imp|lication|
|00005800| 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 | 61 72 6c 69 65 72 2e 0a | given e|arlier..|
|00005810| 0a 44 45 4e 49 41 4c 20 | 4f 46 20 54 48 45 20 41 |.DENIAL |OF THE A|
|00005820| 4e 54 45 43 45 44 45 4e | 54 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 20 |NTECEDEN|T..This |
|00005830| 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 | 69 73 20 61 6e 20 61 72 |fallacy |is an ar|
|00005840| 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f | 66 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f |gument o|f the fo|
|00005850| 72 6d 20 22 41 20 69 6d | 70 6c 69 65 73 20 42 2c |rm "A im|plies B,|
|00005860| 20 41 20 69 73 20 66 61 | 6c 73 65 2c 20 74 68 65 | A is fa|lse, the|
|00005870| 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 42 | 0a 69 73 20 66 61 6c 73 |refore B|.is fals|
|00005880| 65 22 2e 20 20 41 67 61 | 69 6e 2c 20 74 68 65 20 |e".  Aga|in, the |
|00005890| 74 72 75 74 68 20 74 61 | 62 6c 65 20 66 6f 72 20 |truth ta|ble for |
|000058a0| 69 6d 70 6c 69 63 61 74 | 69 6f 6e 20 6d 61 6b 65 |implicat|ion make|
|000058b0| 73 20 69 74 20 63 6c 65 | 61 72 20 77 68 79 20 74 |s it cle|ar why t|
|000058c0| 68 69 73 20 69 73 0a 61 | 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 |his is.a| fallacy|
|000058d0| 2e 0a 0a 4e 6f 74 65 20 | 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 |...Note |that thi|
|000058e0| 73 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 | 79 20 69 73 20 64 69 66 |s fallac|y is dif|
|000058f0| 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 66 | 72 6f 6d 20 4e 6f 6e 20 |ferent f|rom Non |
|00005900| 43 61 75 73 61 20 50 72 | 6f 20 43 61 75 73 61 3b |Causa Pr|o Causa;|
|00005910| 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 74 | 74 65 72 20 68 61 73 0a | the lat|ter has.|
|00005920| 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 6d | 20 22 41 20 69 6d 70 6c |the form| "A impl|
|00005930| 69 65 73 20 42 2c 20 41 | 20 69 73 20 66 61 6c 73 |ies B, A| is fals|
|00005940| 65 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 | 66 6f 72 65 20 42 20 69 |e, there|fore B i|
|00005950| 73 20 66 61 6c 73 65 22 | 2c 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 |s false"|, where |
|00005960| 41 20 64 6f 65 73 20 4e | 4f 54 20 69 6e 0a 66 61 |A does N|OT in.fa|
|00005970| 63 74 20 69 6d 70 6c 79 | 20 42 20 61 74 20 61 6c |ct imply| B at al|
|00005980| 6c 2e 20 20 48 65 72 65 | 2c 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 |l.  Here|, the pr|
|00005990| 6f 62 6c 65 6d 20 69 73 | 20 6e 6f 74 20 74 68 61 |oblem is| not tha|
|000059a0| 74 20 74 68 65 20 69 6d | 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f |t the im|plicatio|
|000059b0| 6e 20 69 73 0a 69 6e 76 | 61 6c 69 64 3b 20 72 61 |n is.inv|alid; ra|
|000059c0| 74 68 65 72 20 69 74 20 | 69 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 |ther it |is that |
|000059d0| 74 68 65 20 66 61 6c 73 | 65 6e 65 73 73 20 6f 66 |the fals|eness of|
|000059e0| 20 41 20 64 6f 65 73 20 | 6e 6f 74 20 61 6c 6c 6f | A does |not allo|
|000059f0| 77 20 75 73 20 74 6f 20 | 64 65 64 75 63 65 0a 61 |w us to |deduce.a|
|00005a00| 6e 79 74 68 69 6e 67 20 | 61 62 6f 75 74 20 42 2e |nything |about B.|
|00005a10| 0a 0a 43 4f 4e 56 45 52 | 54 49 4e 47 20 41 20 43 |..CONVER|TING A C|
|00005a20| 4f 4e 44 49 54 49 4f 4e | 41 4c 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 |ONDITION|AL..This|
|00005a30| 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 | 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 61 | fallacy| is an a|
|00005a40| 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 20 | 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 66 |rgument |of the f|
|00005a50| 6f 72 6d 20 22 49 66 20 | 41 20 74 68 65 6e 20 42 |orm "If |A then B|
|00005a60| 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 66 | 6f 72 65 20 69 66 20 42 |, theref|ore if B|
|00005a70| 20 74 68 65 6e 20 41 22 | 2e 0a 0a 41 52 47 55 4d | then A"|...ARGUM|
|00005a80| 45 4e 54 55 4d 20 41 44 | 20 41 4e 54 49 51 55 49 |ENTUM AD| ANTIQUI|
|00005a90| 54 41 54 45 4d 0a 0a 54 | 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 74 |TATEM..T|his is t|
|00005aa0| 68 65 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 | 63 79 20 6f 66 20 61 73 |he falla|cy of as|
|00005ab0| 73 65 72 74 69 6e 67 20 | 74 68 61 74 20 73 6f 6d |serting |that som|
|00005ac0| 65 74 68 69 6e 67 20 69 | 73 20 72 69 67 68 74 20 |ething i|s right |
|00005ad0| 6f 72 20 67 6f 6f 64 20 | 73 69 6d 70 6c 79 0a 62 |or good |simply.b|
|00005ae0| 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 | 74 20 69 73 20 6f 6c 64 |ecause i|t is old|
|00005af0| 2c 20 6f 72 20 62 65 63 | 61 75 73 65 20 22 74 68 |, or bec|ause "th|
|00005b00| 61 74 27 73 20 74 68 65 | 20 77 61 79 20 69 74 27 |at's the| way it'|
|00005b10| 73 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 | 20 62 65 65 6e 2e 22 0a |s always| been.".|
|00005b20| 0a 41 52 47 55 4d 45 4e | 54 55 4d 20 41 44 20 4e |.ARGUMEN|TUM AD N|
|00005b30| 4f 56 49 54 41 54 45 4d | 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 20 69 |OVITATEM|..This i|
|00005b40| 73 20 74 68 65 20 6f 70 | 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 6f |s the op|posite o|
|00005b50| 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 | 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d |f the ar|gumentum|
|00005b60| 20 61 64 20 61 6e 74 69 | 71 75 69 74 61 74 65 6d | ad anti|quitatem|
|00005b70| 3b 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 | 74 68 65 20 66 61 6c 6c |; it is |the fall|
|00005b80| 61 63 79 20 6f 66 0a 61 | 73 73 65 72 74 69 6e 67 |acy of.a|sserting|
|00005b90| 20 74 68 61 74 20 73 6f | 6d 65 74 68 69 6e 67 20 | that so|mething |
|00005ba0| 69 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 | 63 6f 72 72 65 63 74 20 |is more |correct |
|00005bb0| 73 69 6d 70 6c 79 20 62 | 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 |simply b|ecause i|
|00005bc0| 74 20 69 73 20 6e 65 77 | 20 6f 72 20 6e 65 77 65 |t is new| or newe|
|00005bd0| 72 0a 74 68 61 6e 20 73 | 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 6e 67 |r.than s|omething|
|00005be0| 20 65 6c 73 65 2e 0a 0a | 41 52 47 55 4d 45 4e 54 | else...|ARGUMENT|
|00005bf0| 55 4d 20 41 44 20 43 52 | 55 4d 45 4e 41 4d 0a 0a |UM AD CR|UMENAM..|
|00005c00| 54 68 65 20 66 61 6c 6c | 61 63 79 20 6f 66 20 62 |The fall|acy of b|
|00005c10| 65 6c 69 65 76 69 6e 67 | 20 74 68 61 74 20 6d 6f |elieving| that mo|
|00005c20| 6e 65 79 20 69 73 20 61 | 20 63 72 69 74 65 72 69 |ney is a| criteri|
|00005c30| 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 63 6f | 72 72 65 63 74 6e 65 73 |on of co|rrectnes|
|00005c40| 73 3b 20 74 68 61 74 20 | 74 68 6f 73 65 0a 77 69 |s; that |those.wi|
|00005c50| 74 68 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 | 6d 6f 6e 65 79 20 61 72 |th more |money ar|
|00005c60| 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6c | 69 6b 65 6c 79 20 74 6f |e more l|ikely to|
|00005c70| 20 62 65 20 72 69 67 68 | 74 2e 0a 0a 41 52 47 55 | be righ|t...ARGU|
|00005c80| 4d 45 4e 54 55 4d 20 41 | 44 20 4c 41 5a 41 52 55 |MENTUM A|D LAZARU|
|00005c90| 4d 0a 0a 54 68 65 20 66 | 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 6f |M..The f|allacy o|
|00005ca0| 66 20 61 73 73 75 6d 69 | 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 |f assumi|ng that |
|00005cb0| 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 | 73 6f 6d 65 6f 6e 65 20 |because |someone |
|00005cc0| 69 73 20 70 6f 6f 72 20 | 68 65 20 6f 72 20 73 68 |is poor |he or sh|
|00005cd0| 65 20 69 73 20 73 6f 75 | 6e 64 65 72 20 6f 72 0a |e is sou|nder or.|
|00005ce0| 6d 6f 72 65 20 76 69 72 | 74 75 6f 75 73 20 74 68 |more vir|tuous th|
|00005cf0| 61 6e 20 6f 6e 65 20 77 | 68 6f 20 69 73 20 77 65 |an one w|ho is we|
|00005d00| 61 6c 74 68 69 65 72 2e | 20 20 54 68 69 73 20 66 |althier.|  This f|
|00005d10| 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 69 | 73 20 74 68 65 20 6f 70 |allacy i|s the op|
|00005d20| 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 6f | 66 20 74 68 65 0a 61 72 |posite o|f the.ar|
|00005d30| 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d | 20 61 64 20 63 72 75 6d |gumentum| ad crum|
|00005d40| 65 6e 61 6d 2e 0a 0a 41 | 52 47 55 4d 45 4e 54 55 |enam...A|RGUMENTU|
|00005d50| 4d 20 41 44 20 4e 41 55 | 53 45 41 4d 0a 0a 54 68 |M AD NAU|SEAM..Th|
|00005d60| 69 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 | 65 20 69 6e 63 6f 72 72 |is is th|e incorr|
|00005d70| 65 63 74 20 62 65 6c 69 | 65 66 20 74 68 61 74 20 |ect beli|ef that |
|00005d80| 61 6e 20 61 73 73 65 72 | 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 |an asser|tion is |
|00005d90| 6d 6f 72 65 20 6c 69 6b | 65 6c 79 20 74 6f 20 62 |more lik|ely to b|
|00005da0| 65 20 74 72 75 65 20 74 | 68 65 0a 6d 6f 72 65 20 |e true t|he.more |
|00005db0| 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 69 74 | 20 69 73 20 68 65 61 72 |often it| is hear|
|00005dc0| 64 2e 20 20 41 6e 20 22 | 61 72 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 |d.  An "|argument|
|00005dd0| 75 6d 20 61 64 20 6e 61 | 75 73 65 61 6d 22 20 69 |um ad na|useam" i|
|00005de0| 73 20 6f 6e 65 20 74 68 | 61 74 20 65 6d 70 6c 6f |s one th|at emplo|
|00005df0| 79 73 0a 63 6f 6e 73 74 | 61 6e 74 20 72 65 70 65 |ys.const|ant repe|
|00005e00| 74 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 | 6e 20 61 73 73 65 72 74 |tition i|n assert|
|00005e10| 69 6e 67 20 73 6f 6d 65 | 74 68 69 6e 67 2e 0a 0a |ing some|thing...|
|00005e20| 42 49 46 55 52 43 41 54 | 49 4f 4e 0a 0a 41 6c 73 |BIFURCAT|ION..Als|
|00005e30| 6f 20 72 65 66 65 72 72 | 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 73 |o referr|ed to as|
|00005e40| 20 74 68 65 20 22 62 6c | 61 63 6b 20 61 6e 64 20 | the "bl|ack and |
|00005e50| 77 68 69 74 65 22 20 66 | 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 2c 20 |white" f|allacy, |
|00005e60| 62 69 66 75 72 63 61 74 | 69 6f 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 |bifurcat|ion occu|
|00005e70| 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e 0a | 6f 6e 65 20 70 72 65 73 |rs when.|one pres|
|00005e80| 65 6e 74 73 20 61 20 73 | 69 74 75 61 74 69 6f 6e |ents a s|ituation|
|00005e90| 20 61 73 20 68 61 76 69 | 6e 67 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 | as havi|ng only |
|00005ea0| 74 77 6f 20 61 6c 74 65 | 72 6e 61 74 69 76 65 73 |two alte|rnatives|
|00005eb0| 2c 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 | 69 6e 20 66 61 63 74 20 |, where |in fact |
|00005ec0| 6f 74 68 65 72 0a 61 6c | 74 65 72 6e 61 74 69 76 |other.al|ternativ|
|00005ed0| 65 73 20 65 78 69 73 74 | 20 6f 72 20 63 61 6e 20 |es exist| or can |
|00005ee0| 65 78 69 73 74 2e 0a 0a | 50 4c 55 52 49 55 4d 20 |exist...|PLURIUM |
|00005ef0| 49 4e 54 45 52 52 4f 47 | 41 54 49 4f 4e 55 4d 20 |INTERROG|ATIONUM |
|00005f00| 2f 20 4d 41 4e 59 20 51 | 55 45 53 54 49 4f 4e 53 |/ MANY Q|UESTIONS|
|00005f10| 0a 0a 54 68 69 73 20 66 | 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 6f |..This f|allacy o|
|00005f20| 63 63 75 72 73 20 77 68 | 65 6e 20 61 20 71 75 65 |ccurs wh|en a que|
|00005f30| 73 74 69 6f 6e 65 72 20 | 64 65 6d 61 6e 64 73 20 |stioner |demands |
|00005f40| 61 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 | 20 61 6e 73 77 65 72 20 |a simple| answer |
|00005f50| 74 6f 20 61 20 63 6f 6d | 70 6c 65 78 0a 71 75 65 |to a com|plex.que|
|00005f60| 73 74 69 6f 6e 2e 0a 0a | 4e 4f 4e 20 53 45 51 55 |stion...|NON SEQU|
|00005f70| 49 54 55 52 0a 0a 41 20 | 6e 6f 6e 2d 73 65 71 75 |ITUR..A |non-sequ|
|00005f80| 69 74 75 72 20 69 73 20 | 61 6e 20 61 72 67 75 6d |itur is |an argum|
|00005f90| 65 6e 74 20 77 68 65 72 | 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f |ent wher|e the co|
|00005fa0| 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e | 20 69 73 20 64 72 61 77 |nclusion| is draw|
|00005fb0| 6e 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 70 | 72 65 6d 69 73 65 73 0a |n from p|remises.|
|00005fc0| 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 | 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 6c 6f |which ar|e not lo|
|00005fd0| 67 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 | 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 65 |gically |connecte|
|00005fe0| 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 69 | 74 2e 0a 0a 52 45 44 20 |d with i|t...RED |
|00005ff0| 48 45 52 52 49 4e 47 0a | 0a 54 68 69 73 20 66 61 |HERRING.|.This fa|
|00006000| 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 69 73 | 20 63 6f 6d 6d 69 74 74 |llacy is| committ|
|00006010| 65 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 | 69 72 72 65 6c 65 76 61 |ed when |irreleva|
|00006020| 6e 74 20 6d 61 74 65 72 | 69 61 6c 20 69 73 20 69 |nt mater|ial is i|
|00006030| 6e 74 72 6f 64 75 63 65 | 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 |ntroduce|d to the|
|00006040| 20 69 73 73 75 65 0a 62 | 65 69 6e 67 20 64 69 73 | issue.b|eing dis|
|00006050| 63 75 73 73 65 64 2c 20 | 73 6f 20 74 68 61 74 20 |cussed, |so that |
|00006060| 65 76 65 72 79 6f 6e 65 | 27 73 20 61 74 74 65 6e |everyone|'s atten|
|00006070| 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 | 64 69 76 65 72 74 65 64 |tion is |diverted|
|00006080| 20 61 77 61 79 20 66 72 | 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 0a 70 | away fr|om the.p|
|00006090| 6f 69 6e 74 73 20 62 65 | 69 6e 67 20 6d 61 64 65 |oints be|ing made|
|000060a0| 2c 20 74 6f 77 61 72 64 | 73 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 |, toward|s a diff|
|000060b0| 65 72 65 6e 74 20 63 6f | 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e |erent co|nclusion|
|000060c0| 2e 0a 0a 52 45 49 46 49 | 43 41 54 49 4f 4e 20 2f |...REIFI|CATION /|
|000060d0| 20 48 59 50 4f 53 54 41 | 54 49 5a 41 54 49 4f 4e | HYPOSTA|TIZATION|
|000060e0| 0a 0a 52 65 69 66 69 63 | 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 63 |..Reific|ation oc|
|000060f0| 63 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 | 6e 20 61 6e 20 61 62 73 |curs whe|n an abs|
|00006100| 74 72 61 63 74 20 63 6f | 6e 63 65 70 74 20 69 73 |tract co|ncept is|
|00006110| 20 74 72 65 61 74 65 64 | 20 61 73 20 61 20 63 6f | treated| as a co|
|00006120| 6e 63 72 65 74 65 20 74 | 68 69 6e 67 2e 0a 0a 53 |ncrete t|hing...S|
|00006130| 48 49 46 54 49 4e 47 20 | 54 48 45 20 42 55 52 44 |HIFTING |THE BURD|
|00006140| 45 4e 20 4f 46 20 50 52 | 4f 4f 46 0a 0a 54 68 65 |EN OF PR|OOF..The|
|00006150| 20 62 75 72 64 65 6e 20 | 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 6f 66 | burden |of proof|
|00006160| 20 69 73 20 61 6c 77 61 | 79 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 | is alwa|ys on th|
|00006170| 65 20 70 65 72 73 6f 6e | 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 |e person| making |
|00006180| 61 6e 20 61 73 73 65 72 | 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 72 0a |an asser|tion or.|
|00006190| 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 69 74 | 69 6f 6e 2e 20 20 53 68 |proposit|ion.  Sh|
|000061a0| 69 66 74 69 6e 67 20 74 | 68 65 20 62 75 72 64 65 |ifting t|he burde|
|000061b0| 6e 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f | 6f 66 2c 20 61 20 73 70 |n of pro|of, a sp|
|000061c0| 65 63 69 61 6c 20 63 61 | 73 65 20 6f 66 20 61 72 |ecial ca|se of ar|
|000061d0| 67 75 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d | 20 61 64 0a 69 67 6e 6f |gumentum| ad.igno|
|000061e0| 72 61 6e 74 69 61 6d 2c | 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 |rantiam,| is the |
|000061f0| 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 | 6f 66 20 70 75 74 74 69 |fallacy |of putti|
|00006200| 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 62 | 75 72 64 65 6e 20 6f 66 |ng the b|urden of|
|00006210| 20 70 72 6f 6f 66 20 6f | 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 | proof o|n the pe|
|00006220| 72 73 6f 6e 20 77 68 6f | 0a 64 65 6e 69 65 73 20 |rson who|.denies |
|00006230| 6f 72 20 71 75 65 73 74 | 69 6f 6e 73 20 74 68 65 |or quest|ions the|
|00006240| 20 61 73 73 65 72 74 69 | 6f 6e 20 62 65 69 6e 67 | asserti|on being|
|00006250| 20 6d 61 64 65 2e 20 20 | 54 68 65 20 73 6f 75 72 | made.  |The sour|
|00006260| 63 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 | 65 20 66 61 6c 6c 61 63 |ce of th|e fallac|
|00006270| 79 20 69 73 0a 74 68 65 | 20 61 73 73 75 6d 70 74 |y is.the| assumpt|
|00006280| 69 6f 6e 20 74 68 61 74 | 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 68 69 |ion that| somethi|
|00006290| 6e 67 20 69 73 20 74 72 | 75 65 20 75 6e 6c 65 73 |ng is tr|ue unles|
|000062a0| 73 20 70 72 6f 76 65 6e | 20 6f 74 68 65 72 77 69 |s proven| otherwi|
|000062b0| 73 65 2e 0a 0a 53 54 52 | 41 57 20 4d 41 4e 0a 0a |se...STR|AW MAN..|
|000062c0| 54 68 65 20 73 74 72 61 | 77 20 6d 61 6e 20 66 61 |The stra|w man fa|
|000062d0| 6c 6c 61 63 79 20 69 73 | 20 74 6f 20 6d 69 73 72 |llacy is| to misr|
|000062e0| 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 | 20 73 6f 6d 65 6f 6e 65 |epresent| someone|
|000062f0| 20 65 6c 73 65 27 73 20 | 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e | else's |position|
|00006300| 20 73 6f 20 74 68 61 74 | 20 69 74 0a 63 61 6e 20 | so that| it.can |
|00006310| 62 65 20 61 74 74 61 63 | 6b 65 64 20 6d 6f 72 65 |be attac|ked more|
|00006320| 20 65 61 73 69 6c 79 2c | 20 74 68 65 6e 20 74 6f | easily,| then to|
|00006330| 20 6b 6e 6f 63 6b 20 64 | 6f 77 6e 20 74 68 61 74 | knock d|own that|
|00006340| 20 6d 69 73 72 65 70 72 | 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 | misrepr|esented |
|00006350| 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e | 2c 0a 74 68 65 6e 20 74 |position|,.then t|
|00006360| 6f 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 | 64 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 |o conclu|de that |
|00006370| 74 68 65 20 6f 72 69 67 | 69 6e 61 6c 20 70 6f 73 |the orig|inal pos|
|00006380| 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 68 61 | 73 20 62 65 65 6e 20 64 |ition ha|s been d|
|00006390| 65 6d 6f 6c 69 73 68 65 | 64 2e 20 20 49 74 20 69 |emolishe|d.  It i|
|000063a0| 73 20 61 0a 66 61 6c 6c | 61 63 79 20 62 65 63 61 |s a.fall|acy beca|
|000063b0| 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 66 | 61 69 6c 73 20 74 6f 20 |use it f|ails to |
|000063c0| 64 65 61 6c 20 77 69 74 | 68 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 |deal wit|h the ac|
|000063d0| 74 75 61 6c 20 61 72 67 | 75 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 74 |tual arg|uments t|
|000063e0| 68 61 74 20 68 61 76 65 | 20 62 65 65 6e 0a 6d 61 |hat have| been.ma|
|000063f0| 64 65 2e 0a 0a 54 48 45 | 20 45 58 54 45 4e 44 45 |de...THE| EXTENDE|
+--------+-------------------------+-------------------------+--------+--------+